Browsing by Author "Ocaido, Michael"
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Item Economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis in pastoral and ago pastoral communities in Buliisa district, Uganda(Research Square, 2022) Kizza, Daniel; Ocaido, Michael; Mugisha, Anthony; Azuba, Rose; Nalule, Sarah; Onyuth, Howard; Musinguzi, Simon Peter; Nalubwama, Sylvia; Waiswa, CharlesAnimal diseases that are endemic like tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis cause continuous expenditure of financial resources of livestock farmers and loss of productivity of livestock. Estimating the cost of controlling animal trypanosomosis can provide evidence for priority setting and targeting cost effective control strategies. Methodology A cross sectional survey to estimate the economic cost of bovine trypanosomosiswas conducted in cattle keeping communities living around Murchision falls National Park, in Buliisa district Uganda. Data was collected on herd structure, the cost of treatment and control, prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates due to trypanosomosis, salvage sales losses in cattle herd in the last one year. Results- In this study, 55.4% (n= 87) of the households reported their cattle had been affected by trypanosomosis during the previous last year. There was a high economic cost trypanosomosis (USD 653) per household in cattle keeping communities in Buliisa district of which 83% and 9% was due to mortality and milk loss respectively/ High mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment. The study showed that prophylactic treatment 3 times a year of the whole herd of cattle using Samorin ® (Isometamidium chloride) at a cost of USD 110 could drastically reduce cattle mortality loss due to trypanosomosis due to trypanosomosis with return on investment of USD 540 annually per herd. This could be coupled with strategic restricted insecticide spraying of cattle with deltamethrin products. Conclusions. The results show a high economic cost of trypanosomosis in cattle keeping communities in Buliisa district with mortality of cattle contributing the largest proportion of the economic cost. The high mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment of sick cattleItem Enhancing knowledge and awareness of biosecurity practices for control of African swine fever among smallholder pig farmers in four districts along the Kenya–Uganda border(Tropical animal health and production, 2016) Nantima, Noelina; Davies, Jocelyn; Dione, Michel; Ocaido, Michael; Okoth, Edward; Mugisha, Anthony; Bishop, RichardA study was undertaken along the Kenya–Uganda border in four districts of Tororo and Busia (Uganda) and Busia and Teso (Kenya) to understand smallholder farmers’ knowledge, practices and awareness of biosecurity measures. Information was collected by administering questionnaires to 645 randomly selected pig households in the study area. In addition, focus group discussions were carried out in 12 villages involving 248 people using a standardized list of questions. The outcome suggested that there was a very low level of awareness of biosecurity practices amongst smallholder farmers. We conclude that adoption of specific biosecurity practices by smallholder farmers is feasible but requires institutional support. There is a clear requirement for government authorities to sensitize farmers using approaches that allow active participation of farmers in the design, planning and implementation of biosecurity practices to enable enhanced adoption.Item Heterogeneity in Prevalence of Bovine Trypanosomosis and its Associated Risk Factors in Pastoral and Agro Pastoral Communities Surrounding Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda.(Research Square, 2021) Kizza, Daniel; Ocaido, Michael; Mugisha, Anthony; Azuba, Rose; Nalule, Sarah; Onyuth, Howard; Musinguzi, Simon Peter; Okwasiimire, Rodney; Waiswa, CharlesBovine trypanosomosis transmitted by tsetse flies is a major constraint to cattle health and productivity in sub- Saharan countries including Uganda. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and its associated risk factors and the species of trypanosomes associated with the disease. Methodology: A cross sectional study was conducted around Murchision Falls National Park, Uganda from January 2020 to April 2020. Blood samples were collected from 460 cattle and were screened for trypanosomes using ITS-PCR. Results: From 460 samples collected, 136 (29.6%) of the samples were positive for trypanosomosis infections while 324 (70.4%) samples were negative. The overall trypanosome prevalence was 29.6% (95% CI 25.4-33.8). T. vivax (n = 130, 28.3%) was the most prevalent trypanosome specie detected and two mixed infection types (T.vivax + T. congolense (n = 2, 0.4%) and T.vivax + T. brucei (n = 1.0, 0.2%) were detected during the analysis. There was a significant difference when Trypanosome prevalence was compared with sex, age, breed of the sampled animals (P < 0.05 for sex), (P = 0.0043 for age) and (P = 0.001 for breed). Conclusion; Trypanosomosis is still a major limitation to cattle production around Murchision Falls National Park and interventions are urgently needed .The prevalence of trypanosomosis was high and T.vivax was identified as the major trypanosome species in the cattle herd.Item Knowledge, Attitude, and Beliefs of Communities and Health Staff about Echinococcus granulosus Infection in Selected Pastoral and Agropastoral Regions of Uganda(Journal of parasitology research, 2018) Othieno, Emmanuel; Ocaido, Michael; Mupere, Ezekiel; Omadang, Leonard; Oba, Peter; Okwi, Andrew LivexAccording to World Health Organization (WHO) [1] cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a neglected zoonotic infection found throughout the world and is associated with high morbidity and mortality in poor resource countries especially in pastoral communities in Africa (Macpherson et al. [2]). In Uganda, the prevalence ofCE has been found to vary between pastoral and agropastoral communities, with pastoral communities being at higher risk than agropastoral communities (Othieno et al. [3]). High prevalence of CE has equally been reported in livestock (Chamai et al. [4] and Magambo et al. [5]) and in dogs (Inangolet et al. [6] and Oba et al. [7]). Cystic echinococcosis is caused by a species of Echinococcus, namely, Echinococcus granulosus, whose definitive hosts are the carnivores such as dogs. Usually dogs become infected with Echinococcus granulosus by eating infected internal organs such as liver and lungs from dead animals that contain tape worm embryos. The dogs pass out tapeworm eggs in their stool, which can cause infection in other animals and/or in humans who accidentally swallow the eggs. In humans, Echinococcus granulosus forms slow-growing cysts (called hydatid cysts) in different organs of the body which can be very difficult to remove or treat in some cases (Nahmias et al. [8]).Item Knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine trypanosomosis control in pastoral and agro pastoral communities surrounding Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda(Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2021) Kizza, Daniel; Ocaido, Michael; Mugisha, Anthony; Azuba, Rose; Nalule, Sarah; Onyuth, Howard; Musinguzi, Simon Peter; Nalubwama, Sylvia; Waiswa, CharlesA mixed method survey was conducted among pastoral and agro pastoral communities surrounding Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices about control of bovine trypanosomosis. A total of 96.8% (n = 152) of the participants had seen tsetse flies, and close to 91.7% (n = 116) of the participants had heard about bovine trypanosomosis. Bovine trypanosomosis was reported as a major disease in their area by about 73.9%(n = 116). There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the level of awareness and perception about tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis across the study sub counties. The majority of the farmers (60.5%) stated that grazing near national parks was the main cause of bovine trypanosomosis. A small proportion of farmers associated sharing grazing land and watering points with wildlife (19.1%) and grazing cattle in tsetse flyinfested areas (8.3%) as the causes of trypanosomosis. The communities in the study sub counties were aware of at least one or two clinical signs of bovine trypanosomosis. Spraying cattlewith insecticide and avoiding grazing animals in tsetse-infested areas were the control practices. Curative trypanocides were mainly used to treat their cattle against trypanosomosis. Bush clearing, targets and traps as tsetse fly control measures were less practiced by the farmers. Treatment of cattle was based on observation of clinical signs due to absence of blood diagnostic facilities. Implementing regular tsetse fly population monitoring surveys and promotion of disease rapid diagnostic tools at farm level as long-term strategies are key for effective control of the disease.Item Knowledge, attitudes and practices towards cystic echinococcosis in livestock among selected pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Uganda(Tropical animal health and production, 2018) Omadang, Leonard; Chamai, Martin; Othieno, Emmanuel; Okwi, Andrew; Olaki Inangolet, Francis; Ejobi, Francis; Oba, Peter; Ocaido, MichaelA cross-sectional study was done from March 2013 to May 2014 to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards cystic echinococcosis (CE) or hydatidosis among selected pastoral and agro-pastoral communities in Uganda. A structured questionnaire was administered to 381 respondents. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was done to find the relationship between knowledge about CE and factors such as age, sex, and level of education across all regions. The odds ratio and confidence interval were used to determine the difference in responses across regions. It was shown that age above 36 years was significantly (p < 0.001) associated with awareness about CE in livestock. Likewise, uneducated (p < 0.0001) and agro-pastoralists (p = 0.01) were significantly less knowledgeable than the educated and pastoralists across all regions. The overall knowledge towards CE in livestock was low 17.8% (95% CI = 14.0–21.6). Dog ownership was high and they never dewormed their freely roaming dogs. Dogs shared water with livestock. In conclusion, knowledge about CE in livestock was low across all regions. Therefore, public health education and formulation of policies towards its control by the relevant stakeholders should be done. Also, the true prevalence of CE in livestock needs to be done so that the magnitude and its public health significance are elucidatedItem Knowledge, perceptions and effects of Ebola virus disease outbreak on the pig value chain in the agro-pastoralist district of Luwero, Central Uganda(BMC infectious diseases,, 2021) Birungi, Doreen; Tumwine, Gabriel; Kato, Charles Drago; Ssekamatte, Tonny; Ocaido, Michael; Majalija, SamuelEbola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreaks have a significant impact on the health and wellbeing, and livelihoods of communities. EVD response interventions particularly affect the food value chain, and income security of pig farmers in agro-pastoral communities. Despite the enormous effort of EVD response interventions, there is paucity of information towards EVD among those involved in the pig value chain, as well as the effect of EVD outbreaks on the pig value chain. This study therefore, assessed the knowledge, perceptions on the occurrence of Ebola and its effects on the pig value chain in the agro-pastoral district of Luweero, Central Uganda. A cross sectional study was conducted in two parishes of Ssambwe and Ngalonkulu, Luwero district. A total of 229 respondents were included in the study. Structured questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to collect data. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS version 22 while qualitative data was analysed using thematic content analysis. Of the 229 respondents, 95.6% could recall the occurrence of the last EVD outbreak in their locality. About 24.5% associated EVD with touching pigs or eating pork. Regarding knowledge, 194 (84.7%) correctly associated EVD with handling Ebola infected persons, 191 (83.4%) with migration of people from endemic areas, 148 (64.9%) eating monkey meat, 127 (55.5%) with eating bats, and 198 (64.9%) with conducting public meetings where there is an Ebola infected person. Out of 142 farmers, 55 (38.7%) believed that Ebola outbreaks affected demand and sale of pigs. The EVD outbreak significantly led to a reduction in the average number of pigs sold (P = 0.001), the average number of pigs bought by traders (P = 0.04), and the number of pigs sold/ slaughtered by butcher men at pork eating places (P = 0.03). This study showed that EVD outbreak negatively affected the pig value chain i.e., the demand and supply of pigs and pork. Therefore, there is need to sensitize the stakeholders in the pig value chain on EVD in order to minimize the negative economic impacts associated with EVD outbreaks.Item A Longitudinal Survey of African Swine Fever in Uganda Reveals High Apparent Disease Incidence Rates in Domestic Pigs, But Absence of Detectable Persistent Virus Infections in Blood and Serum(BMC veterinary research, 2015) Muhangi, Denis; Masembe, Charles; Emanuelson, Ulf; Boqvist, Sofia; Mayega, Lawrence; Ademun, Rose Okurut; Bishop, Richard P; Ocaido, Michael; Berg, Mikael; Ståh, KarlAfrican swine fever (ASF) is a fatal, haemorrhagic disease of domestic pigs, that poses a serious threat to pig farmers and is currently endemic in domestic pigs in most of sub-Saharan Africa. To obtain insight into the factors related to ASF outbreaks at the farm-level, a longitudinal study was performed in one of the major pig producing areas in central Uganda. Potential risk factors associated with outbreaks of ASF were investigated including the possible presence of apparently healthy ASF-virus (ASFV) infected pigs, which could act as long-term carriers of the virus. Blood and serum were sampled from 715 pigs (241 farms) and 649 pigs (233 farms) to investigate presence of ASFV and antibodies, during the periods of June-October 2010 and March-June 2011, respectively. To determine the potential contribution of different risks to ASF spread, a questionnaire-based survey was administered to farmers to assess the association between ASF outbreaks during the study period and the risk factors.Fifty-one (21 %) and 13 (5.6 %) farms reported an ASF outbreak on their farms in the previous one to two years and during the study period, respectively. The incidence rate for ASF prior to the study period was estimated at 14.1 per 100 pig farm-years and 5.6 per 100 pig farm-years during the study. Three pigs tested positive for ASFV using real-time PCR, but none tested positive for ASFV specific antibodies using two different commercial ELISA tests.There was no evidence for existence of pigs that were long-term carriers for the virus based on the analysis of blood and serum as there were no seropositive pigs and the only three ASFV DNA positive pigs were acutely infected and were linked to outbreaks reported by farmers during the study. Potential ASF risk factors were present on both small and medium-scale pig farms, although small scale farms exhibited a higher proportion with multiple potential risk factors (like borrowing boars for sows mating, buying replacement from neighboring farms without ascertaining health status, etc) and did not implement any biosecurity measures. However, no risk factors were significantly associated with ASF reports during the study.Item Prevalence and risk factors for trypanosome infection in cattle from communities surrounding the Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda(Parasites & Vectors, 2021) Kizza, Daniel; Ocaido, Michael; Mugisha, Anthony; Azuba, Rose; Nalule, Sarah; Onyuth, Howard; Musinguzi, Simon Peter; Okwasiimire, Rodney; Waiswa, CharlesBovine trypanosomosis transmitted by tsetse flies is a major constraint to cattle health and productivity in all sub-Saharan countries, including Uganda. The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and identify its associated risk factors and the species of trypanosomes associated with the disease. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted around Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda from January 2020 to April 2020. Trypanosomes were detected in blood samples by PCR analysis targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-PCR assays), and trypanosomes in positive blood samples were sequenced. Results: Of 460 blood samples collected and tested, 136 (29.6%) were positive for trypanosome infections and 324 (70.4%) were negative. The overall trypanosome prevalence was 29.6% (95% confidence interval 25.4–33.8%), attributed to three trypanosome species. Of these three species, Trypanosoma vivax was the most prevalent (n = 130, 28.3%) while the others were detected as mixed infections: T. vivax + Trypanosoma congolense (n = 2, 0.4%) and T. vivax + Trypanosoma evansi (n = 1, 0.2%). There were significant differences in trypanosome prevalence according to sex (χ2 = 62, df = 1, P < 0.05), age (χ2 = 6.28, df = 2, P = 0.0043) and cattle breed (χ2 = 10.61, df = 1, P = 0.001). Conclusions: Trypanosomosis remains a major limitation to cattle production around Murchison Falls National Park and interventions are urgently needed. In our study, the prevalence of trypanosome infections was high, with T. vivax identified as the most prevalent species. Age, sex and breed of cattle were risk factors for trypanosome infection.Item Prevalence of Cystic Echinococcosis in Selected Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Districts of Uganda(Annals of Clinical Cytology and Pathology, 2016) Othieno, Emmanuel; Okwi, Andrew; Mupere, Ezekiel; Bimenya, Gabriel; Zeyhle, Eberhard; Oba, Peter; Chamai, Martin; Omadang, Leonard; Inangolet, Francis O.; Siefert, Ludwing; Ejobi, Francis; Ocaido, MichaelA cross sectional ultrasound screening survey for human cystic echinococcosis (CE) was undertaken in the pastoral dist ricts of Moroto, Napak, Nakapiripirit and Amudat in Karamoja sub-region; and agro-pastoral communities of Teso region, in the districts of Kumi and Bukedea. Other areas of the survey included: Nakasongola in Central region and Kasese district in the Western region of Uganda. A total of 3,636 participants were screened and 67 cases (1.84%) had CE. The organ most affected was the liver 61.2% (41/67), followed by the kidney 17.9% (12/67), spleen 10.44% (7/67), omentum 8.95% 6/67) and lungs 1.5% (1/67). All districts screened had positive cases with the highest prevalence occurring in Napak (3.9%) and the lowest in Nakapiripirit (0.45%). The prevalence of CE (0.5±0.3%) in South Karamoja (Amudat and Nakapiripirit) was significantly lower (P<0.001, χ2= 18.98) than in Central Karamoja (Napak and Moroto, 3.32±1.3%). The prevalence of CE in Teso region was found to be 1.21±0.8%, Kasese 2.15±1.2 % and Nakasongola 2.7±1.3%. The prevalence in south Karamoja was lowest. Overall, there was no significant difference (P<0.05; χ2= 0.12) in prevalence between males (1.7%) and females (1.9%). However, in Karamoja females (2.2% CI: 0.8-3.6) were more likely to be infected (χ2= 16; P<0.05) with CE than males (0.9% CI: 0.1-1.7). Sixty four percent (n=43) of the cysts detected were viable.Item Risk factors associated with cystic echinococcosis in humans in selected pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of Uganda(Int J One Health, 2017) Othieno, Emmanuel; Okwi, Andrew Livex; Mupere, Ezekiel; Zeyhle, Eberhard; Oba, Peter; Chamai, Martin; Omadang, Leonard; Olaki Inangolet, Francis; Siefert, Ludwing; Ejobi, Francis; Ocaido, MichaelIt was to determine the risk factors responsible of occurrence of cystic echinococcosis (CE) of humans in the pastoral and agro-pastoral (PAP) in Uganda. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in districts: Moroto, Napak, Nakapiripirit and Amudat in Karamoja region; in agro-pastoral communities of Teso region, in the districts of Kumi and Bukedea; Nakasongola district in Central region and in Kasese district in the Western region. People were subjected to voluntary ultrasound screening for CE. Those found positive to CE on ultrasound screening were interviewed using a special designed form to find out the probable predisposing factors for acquisition of CE infection. Predisposing factors considered were location, age, sex, dog ownership, occupation, water source, and religion. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify key risk factors. Results: In Karamoja region, being female, age beyond 40 years and open spring water sources were the risk factors. While for Nakasongola age beyond 40 years was a risk factor. In Kasese dog ownership, age >60 years and being a Muslim were risk factors. In Teso region dog ownership and age >60 years were the risk factors. Conclusion: Being a pastoralist, a female, increasing age beyond 40 years, open spring water sources, dog ownership and being a Muslim were the risk factors for CE in PAP areas in Uganda.Item Risk factors associated with occurrence of African swine fever outbreaks in smallholder pig farms in four districts along the Uganda-Kenya border(Tropical animal health and production, 2015) Nantima, Noelina; Ocaido, Michael; Ouma, Emily; Davies, Jocelyn; Dione, Michel; Okoth, Edward; Mugisha, Anthony; Bishop, RichardA cross-sectional survey was carried out to assess risk factors associated with occurrence of African swine fever (ASF) outbreaks in smallholder pig farms in four districts along Kenya-Uganda border. Information was collected by administering questionnaires to 642 randomly selected pig households in the study area. The study showed that the major risk factors that influenced ASF occurrence were purchase of pigs in the previous year (p<0.000) and feeding of pigs with swill (p<0.024). By employing cluster analysis, three clusters of pig production types were identified based on production characteristics that were found to differ significantly between districts. The most vulnerable cluster to ASF was households with the highest reported number of ASF outbreaks and composed of those that practiced free range at least some of the time. The majority of the households in this cluster were from Busia district in Uganda. On the other hand, the least vulnerable cluster to ASF composed of households that had the least number of pig purchases, minimal swill feeding, and less treatment for internal and external parasites. The largest proportion of households in this cluster was from Busia district Kenya. The study recommended the need to sensitize farmers to adopt proper biosecurity practices such as total confinement of pigs, treatment of swill, isolation of newly purchased pigs for at least 2 weeks, and provision of incentives for farmers to report suspected outbreaks to authorities and rapid confirmation of outbreaks.Item Risk factors, perceptions and practices associated with Taenia solium cysticercosis and its control in the smallholder pig production systems in Uganda: a cross-sectional survey(BMC infectious diseases, 2017) Kungu, Joseph M.; Dione, Michel M.; Ejobi, Francis; Ocaido, Michael; Grace, DeliaPrevalence studies report Taenia solium cysticercosis in pig and human populations in Uganda. However, the factors influencing occurrence in smallholder pig production systems are not well documented and little is known about farmers’ perceptions of T. solium cysticercosis or farmer practices that could reduce transmission. Methods: To determine the risk factors, perceptions and practices regarding T. solium cysticercosis, a household survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was conducted in 1185 households in the rural and urban pig production systems in Masaka, Mukono and Kamuli Districts. Logistic regression was used to measure associations of risk factors with infection. Performance scores were calculated to summarise perceptions and practices of farmers regarding taeniosis, human cysticercosis and porcine cysticercosis as well as farmer behavior related to control or breaking transmission. Results: Pig breed type, farmers’ knowledge about transmission, sources of water used, and pig keeping homes where family members were unable to use the latrine were all significantly associated with T. solium cysticercosis in pigs. Performance scores indicated that farmers were more aware of taeniosis (63.0%; 95% Confidence Interval 60.0-65.8) than human or porcine cysticercosis; only three farmers (0.3%, 95% CI = 0.1–0.8) had knowledge on all three conditions. More farmers reported that they dewormed pigs (94.1%) than reported deworming themselves and their family members (62.0%). Albendazole was the most commonly used drug for deworming both pigs and humans (85.0 and 81.5% respectively). Just over half (54.6%) of the farmers interviewed had clean water near the latrines for washing hands. Of these, only 41.9% used water with soap to wash hands after latrine use. Conclusion: Factors that significantly influenced occurrence of T. solium cysticercosis in pigs were identified. Farmers had some knowledge about the disease but did not link taeniosis, human cysticercosis, and porcine cysticercosis. Therefore, there is need to employ strategies that raise awareness and interrupt transmission.Item Solubility tests and the peripheral blood film method for screening for sickle-cell disease: A cost benefit analysis(South African Medical Journal, 2009) Okwi, Andrew Livex; Ocaido, Michael; Byarugaba, Wilson; Magala Ndugwa, Christopher; Parkes, ArthurTo determine the cost benefit of screening for sicklecell disease among infants at district health centres in Uganda using sickling, solubility tests and the peripheral blood film method. Methods. Pilot screening services were established at district health centres. Cost benefit analysis (CBA) was performed in four scenarios: A1 – where there are no sickle-cell screening services at district health centres and all children are referred either to Mulago national referral hospital or A2 – a regional hospital for haemoglobin (Hb) electrophoresis; B1 – when there are screening services at district health centres, only positive samples are taken either to Mulago Hospital or B2 – the regional hospital for confirmation using haemoglobin electrophoresis. Calculations were done in Uganda shillings (USh).Item Status of Taenia solium cysticercosis and predisposing factors in developing countries involved in pig farming(International Journal of One Health, 2015) Kungu, Joseph M.; Dione, Michel M.; Ocaido, Michael; Ejobi, FrancisTaenia solium cysticercosis is a disease of pigs and humans populations considered endemic in many developing countries of Latin America, Africa, and South East Asia having serious impact on public health and agriculture. We conducted an in-depth comparative analysis of literature on the disease situation and predisposing factors in selected countries known to be at the interface of poverty-emerging livestock systems-zoonoses and with a growing small holder pig industry. Transmission, methods of diagnosis and employed control strategies of T. solium infection in pig and human populations in these countries are also discussed. Limited knowledge on porcine cysticercosis (PC) by various stakeholders expected to be key players in its control has undermined efforts for eliminating this potentially eradicable condition. Poor pig production practices, poor hygiene, and sanitation habits have also been important in the maintenance of the T. solium life-cycle. The major gaps identified in this review include scanty current information on PC prevalence in pigs with hardly any reports on the condition in humans in most developing countries. Factors affecting pattern of the infection and how they interact at the different levels of the pig value chain have not been exhaustively studied. Information on socioeconomic and public health impact is inadequate and not current.Item An up-date on the prevalence of sickle cell trait in Eastern and Western Uganda(BMC Blood Disorders, 2010) Okwi, Andrew L.; Byarugaba, Wilson; Ndugwa, Christopher M.; Parkes, Arthur; Ocaido, Michael; Tumwine, James K.The first survey on sickle cell disease (SCD) done in Uganda in 1949, reported the district of Bundibugyo in Western Uganda to have the highest sickle cell trait (SCT) prevalence (45%). This is believed to be the highest in the whole world. According to the same survey, the prevalence of SCT in the districts of Mbale and Sironko in the East was 20-28%, whilst the districts of Mbarara and Ntungamo in the West had 1-5%. No follow-up surveys have been conducted over the past 60 years. SCA accounts for approximately 16.2% of all pediatric deaths in Uganda. The pattern of SCT inheritance, however, predicts likely changes in the prevalence and distribution of the SCT. The objective of the study therefore was to establish the current prevalence of the SCT in Uganda. Methods: This study was a cross sectional survey which was carried out in the districts of Mbale and Sironko in the Eastern, Mbarara/Ntungamo and Bundibugyo in Western Uganda. The participants were children (6 months-5 yrs). Blood was collected from each subject and analyzed for hemoglobin S using cellulose acetate Hb electrophoresis. Results: The established prevalence of the SCT (As) in Eastern Uganda was 17.5% compared to 13.4% and 3% in Bundibugyo and Mbarara/Ntungamo respectively. 1.7% of the children in Eastern Uganda tested positive for haemoglobin ss relative to 3% in Bundibugyo, giving gene frequencies of 0.105 and 0.097 for the recessive gene respectively. No ss was detected in Mbarara/Ntungamo. Conclusions: A shift in the prevalence of the SCT and ss in Uganda is notable and may be explained by several biological and social factors. This study offers some evidence for the possible outcome of intermarriages in reducing the incidence of the SCT.