Hazardous child labour in smallholder coffee farming systems in Uganda: Prevalence, determinants, and implications for children's education

Abstract

Hazardous child labour remains a concern in smallholder agricultural production, where household economic constraints and seasonal labour demands may expose children to activities that threaten their health, safety, and educational development. This study examines the prevalence, determinants, and educational implications of hazardous child labour in smallholder coffee farming systems in Uganda. It draws on primary data collected in October 2024 from 491 coffee-producing households across five major coffee-producing regions, covering 1,252 children aged 5–17 years. Using probit regression, multivariate probit models, and ordinary least squares regression, the study analyses children's exposure to physical and mechanical hazards, environmental and chemical hazards, and hazardous working conditions and time-related risks, alongside their educational attainment. The findings indicate that 42% of the children participated in coffee-related activities, while 23% of the children engaged in labour during the seven days preceding the survey had experienced hazardous activities in coffee production during the preceding 12 months. Common hazards included the use of sharp tools, land clearing, and excessive working hours on school days. Older children were more likely to engage in hazardous work, while higher household per capita expenditure was associated with a lower likelihood of hazardous child labour. Children who were biological children or grandchildren of household heads were less likely to participate in hazardous activities than other children residing in the household. Furthermore, hazardous child labour was significantly associated with wider educational gaps, particularly among children exposed to environmental and chemical hazards and hazardous working conditions. Given the cross-sectional design, these relationships should be interpreted as associations rather than causal effects. The study highlights the need for targeted interventions that address household economic vulnerability, strengthen child protection and awareness, and support continued school participation while reducing children's exposure to hazardous activities in coffee production.