Browsing by Author "Eneku, Wilfred"

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    A retrospective analysis of antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. isolates from poultry in Uganda
    (International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 2021-05) Kakooza, Steven; Muwonge, Adrian; Nabatta, Esther; Eneku, Wilfred; Dickson, Dickson; Wampande, Eddie; Munyiirwa, Damian; Kayaga, Edrine; Tumwebaze, Maria Agnes; Afayoa, Mathias; Ssajjakambwe, Paul; Tayebwa, Dickson Stuart; Sayaka, Tsuchida; Okubo, Torahiko; Kazunari, Ushida; Sakurai, Ken’ichi; Mutebi, Francis
    There are increasing reports of antimicrobial treatment failures for bacterial diseases of poultry in Uganda. The paucity of data on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of pathogenic bacteria in Uganda is a major setback to AMR control. This study investigated the occurrence of fowl typhoid, colibacillosis, and AMR in associated pathogens from 2012 to 2018. Laboratory records from the Central Diagnostic Laboratory (CDL), a National Veterinary Diagnostic Facility located at Makerere University, were reviewed. Archived isolates of the causative bacteria for the two diseases were also evaluated for AMR. The frequencies of the two disease conditions, their clinical and necropsy presentations and the demographic data of the diagnostic samples were summarized from the records. Archived bacterial isolates were revived before antimicrobial susceptibility testing. This was done on Mueller Hinton agar using the disk diffusion method, against 16 antimicrobials of medical and veterinary importance according to the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. A total of 697 poultry cases were presented for bacteriological investigations in the review period. Colibacillosis and salmonellosis had prevalence rates of 39.7% (277/697) and 16.2% (113/697), respectively. A total of 63 and 92 isolates of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp., respectively, were archived but 43 (68.3%) E. coli and 47 (51.1%) Salmonella spp. isolates were recovered and evaluated for AMR. Multidrug resistance was more frequent in E. coli (38; 88.4%) than salmonellae (25; 53.2%), (p < 0.001). The high prevalence of colibacillosis, salmonellosis and the AMR of associated pathogens warrants immediate institution of appropriate disease control measures.
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    Animal and human tungiasis-related knowledge and treatment practices among animal keeping households in Bugiri District, South-Eastern Uganda
    (Acta tropica, 2018-10) Mutebi, Francis; Jürgen, Krückenb; Georg, von Samson-Himmelstjernab; Waiswa, Charles; Norbert, Mencke; Eneku, Wilfred; Tamale, Andrew; Hermann, Feldmeier
    Background: Zoonotic tungiasis caused by Tunga penetrans remains a serious public and animal health problem among endemic villages in Uganda and many sub Saharan African countries. Studies on human and animal tungiasis-related knowledge and treatment practices in endemic communities have never been undertaken, a limitation to development of sustainable control measures. Methods: A cross sectional study using semi-structured questionnaires (Supplementary file S1) was conducted among 236 animal rearing households in 10 endemic villages in Bugiri District, South-Eastern Uganda. Focus group discussions and observation checklists were used to validate and clarify the findings. Results: Most respondents knew the aetiology (89.4%), clinical signs (98%) and the ecology of T. penetrans as well as the major risk factors of human tungiasis (65.2%). In contrast, very few respondents were aware of animal tungiasis. Only 4.8% of those with infected animals on the compound knew that some of their animals were infected and 13.6% of the respondents had ever seen tungiasis-affected animals. Pigs (13.1%, n = 31) and dogs (0.85%, n = 2) were the only T. penetrans animal hosts known to animal owners. Affected humans were treated by extraction of embedded sand fleas using non-sterile sharp instruments in all households that reported occurrence of human tungiasis at least once (n = 227). Also, affected animals were mainly treated by mechanical removal of embedded sand fleas in households that have ever experienced animal tungiasis (four out of 12; 33.3%). In a few instances, plant and animal pesticides (n = 3) and other chemicals such as grease, paraffin and wood preservative (n = 3) were also used to treat animal tungiasis. Conclusion: The study revealed a high level of knowledge on human tungiasis but inadequate knowledge on the zoonotic nature of tungiasis. Commonly applied methods for treatment of human and animal tungiasis are a health hazard by themselves. Concerted i.e. One Health-based efforts aiming at promoting appropriate treatment of tungiasis, adequate living conditions and increased awareness on tungiasis in the communities are indicated in order to eliminate tungiasis-associated disease.
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    Case of clinical canine leptospirosis in Uganda
    (Veterinary Record Case Reportshttps://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1136/vetreccr-2017-000484, 2017) Alinaitwe, Lordrick; Kakooza, Steven; Eneku, Wilfred; Anou, Dreyfus; Sabrina, Rodriguez-Campos
    In this report, we present the first confirmed case of clinical leptospirosis in a dog in Uganda. A five-year-old entire male German shepherd dog from a kennel of 25 guard dogs was admitted to the animal clinic and presented hypothermia, lethargy and jaundice of the mucous membranes. The body temperature remained low during the three days post admission until death. The postmortem examination and histological findings led to suspicion of acute leptospirosis. The diagnosis was confirmed by demonstration of pathogenic Leptospira spp DNA in homogenates of the kidney, liver and lungs by real-time PCR. This case highlights that accurate diagnostic methods are needed to clarify if clinical leptospirosis is to date underestimated in Uganda and if it has an impact on public health. Awareness should be raised among veterinarians to consider leptospirosis more often as a differential diagnosis as a consequence of the non-specific signs observed in the presented case.
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    High intensity of Tunga penetrans infection causing severe disease among pigs in Busoga, South Eastern Uganda
    (BMC Veterinary Research, 2017) Mutebi, Francis; Jürgen, Krücken; Hermann, Feldmeier; Waiswa, Charles; Norbert, Mencke; Eneku, Wilfred; Georg, von Samson-Himmelstjerna
    Background: Towards the improvement of stakeholders’ awareness of animal tungiasis, we report 10 unusual severe clinical cases of pig tungiasis which were associated with very high infection intensities of T. penetrans in an endemic area. Results: Morbidity of ten pigs with high sand flea intensities detected during high transmission seasons in an endemic area in Busoga sub region, Uganda is described in detail. The cases of pigs presented with a very high number of embedded sand fleas (median = 276, range = 141–838). Acute manifestations due to severe tungiasis included ulcerations (n = 10), abscess formation (n = 6) and lameness (n = 9). Chronic morpho pathological presentations were overgrowth of claws (n = 5), lateral deviation of dew claws (n = 6), detachment (n = 5) or loss of dew claws (n = 1). Treatment of severe cases with a topical insecticidal aerosol containing chlorfenvinphos, dichlorvos and gentian violet resolved acute morbidity and facilitated healing by re-epithelialisation. Conclusions: The presentations of tungiasis highlighted in this report show that high intensities of embedded T. penetrans can cause a severe clinical disease in pigs. Effective tungiasis preventive measures and early diagnosis for treatment could be crucial to minimize its effects on animal health. T. penetrans can cause a severe clinical disease in pigs. Effective tungiasis preventive measures and early diagnosis for treatment could be crucial to minimize its effects on animal health.
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    Integrating multi-wet laboratory diagnostics to study staphylococci in animals in Uganda
    (BMC Microbiology, 2024) Kakooza, Steven; Eneku, Wilfred; Nabatta, Esther; Wampande, Eddie M.; Ssajjakambwe, Paul; Wanyana, Mariam; Munyiirwa, Damien F. N.; Ndoboli, Dickson; Namuyinda, Dorcus; Athieno, Grace; Kayaga, Edrine; Okwasiimire, Rodney; Sayaka, Tsuchida; Kazunari, Ushida; Ken’ichi, Sakurai; Mutebi, Francis
    Background Several diagnostic environments in Uganda lack real-time, robust and high-throughput technologies for comprehensive typing of microbes, which is a setback to infectious disease surveillance. This study combined various wet laboratory diagnostics to understand the epidemiology of pathogenic staphylococci isolated from animals in Uganda and the implications for global health security priorities. Methods A retrospective study was conducted employing records and pathogenic staphylococci (from animals) archived at the Central Diagnostic Laboratory (CDL), Makerere University, Uganda, between January 2012 and December 2019. The bacteria were speciated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and tested for virulence factors [beta lactamases, lecithinase, deoxyribonuclease (DNase), haemolysins] and resistance to ten antimicrobials of clinical and veterinary relevance. Tetracycline and methicillin resistance genes were also tested. Results The prevalent diseases were mastitis in cattle and skin infections in dogs. Of the 111 staphylococci tested by MALDI-TOF MS, 79 (71.2%) were Staphylococcus aureus, 27 (24.3%) were Staphylococcus pseudintermedius and 5 (4.5%) were Staphylococcus schleiferi. All these strains expressed haemolysins. The prevalence of strains with lecithinase, penicillinase, cephalosporinase and DNase was 35.9% (14/39), 89.7% (35/39), 0.0% (0/39) and 87.2% (34/39), respectively. Staphylococci were primarily resistant to early penicillins (over 80%), tetracycline (57.7%), and chloramphenicol (46.2%). Minimal resistance was noted with cloxacillin (0.0%), ciprofloxacin (9.6%), and cefoxitin (3.8%). The prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) was 78.8% for general staphylococci, 82.2% for S. aureus, 73.1% for S. pseudintermedius, and 60.0% for S. schleiferi. Multidrug resistant staphylococci were significantly more prevalent in the cattle isolates than in the dog isolates (P < 0.05). The prevalence of methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS) tested by resistance to cefoxitin and mecA carriage was 3.8%. These four strains were all isolated from dog skin infections. The tetK gene was the most predominant (35.4%), followed by tetM (25.0%). Conclusion In resource-constrained settings, the approach of integrated diagnostics promises sustainable disease surveillance and the addressing of current capacity gaps. The emergence of MRS (zoonotic bacteria) in companion animals creates a likelihood of reduced treatment options for related human infections, a threat to global health.
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    Knowledge Attitude and Practices towards Cystic Echinococcosis among Pastoral Communities in Greater Kapoeta South Sudan
    (Journal of Veterinary Medicine Research, 2017-05) Wumbiya, S. D.; Mutebi, Francis; Eneku, Wilfred; Nasinyama, G. W.; Skjerve, Eystein; Muwonge, Adrian; Musso, Munyeme; Mugasa, Clare; Nabadda, Daisy; Mirembe, Bernadette; Ambrose, Jubara; Bugeza, James; Wizaso, Mwansinga; Kankya, C.
    Background: Cystic Echinococcosis/Hydatidosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease of major public health importance globally. The disease is endemic in pastoral communities of developing countries because of poor hygienic conditions, illegal home and backyard slaughtering of animals coupled with the presence of stray dogs and poor veterinary services among others. In South Sudan, the magnitude and factors associated with persistence of cystic echinococcosis (CE) are not well documented. The purpose of this study was to assess the knowledge attitudes and practices of the pastoral community towards persistence and maintenance of cystic echinococcosis among domestic animals and humans in Kapoeta county Eastern Equatoria state, South Sudan. Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted and a semi-structured questionnaires, observation, focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informants interviews were used to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAPs) of the pastoral community. Results: Out of the 353 respondents, only 6(1.7%) knew about CE, 41.9% and 78.5% had seen the disease in man and animals respectively, and a larger proportion (87%) of respondents were not aware that other animals also suffer from CE. Only 41.9.% perceived themselves at risk of acquiring CE from dogs. Practices identified as potential risk factors for CE included dogs left to move freely (96.7%), presence of stray dogs (79.9%), no deworming of dogs (95.1%), home slaughtering (58.9%), lack of meat inspection (95.5%), Dogs having free access to livestock slaughter facilities (83.3%), sometimes washing hands before eating food (62.9%), use of untreated water (84.4%), dogs left to feed on their own (93.5%) and do not dispose off dogs feces (95.1%). FGDs revealed that people do not perceived themselves at risk of infection from dogs, and that people think CE is caused by witchcraft. Conclusions: The study clearly showed that there is a knowledge gap about the disease, and the predisposing factors that are responsible for the persistence and maintenance of CE within Kapoeta pastoral community were present. These are wide range of modifiable factors, which should constitute targets for control. There is therefore a need for community education about CE through the One Health Approach.
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    Molecular detection and characterization of emerging pathogens of Rickettsia- felis and felis-like organisms from peri-domestic eas in Uganda
    (Research Article, 2023) Eneku, Wilfred; Erima, Bernard; Maranda Byaruhanga, Anatoli; Nora, G. Cleary; Atim, Gladys; Tugume, Titus; Ukuli, Qouilazoni A.; Kibuuka, Hannah; Mworozi, Edison; Christina Douglas; Jeffrey W. Koehler; Michael E. Fricken; Biryomumaisho, Savino; Matovu, Enock; Tweyongyere, Robert; Wabwire-Mangen, Fred; Byarugaba, Denis K.
    Background: Flea-borne spotted fever is an emerging zoonosis caused by Rikecttsia felis, a Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacterium. The agent is believed to be cosmopolitan, following the distribution pattern of its host and reservoir, Ctenocephalides felis. However, the epidemiology and public health risk it poses remains poorly understood in sub-Saharan Africa, including Uganda. Yersinia pestis, is primarily transmitted by rodent fleas, Xenopsylla cheopis, but other fleas, particularly C. felis, have vectoral capacity. They are neglected in Ugandan entomological surveillance and public health practices, particularly outside endemic foci of bubonic plague. Methods: We collected 14,641 fleas from domestic animals, rodents and homestead environment; compared their diversity and abundance. Pooled into 714 flea pools by species, collection time, host, and host species, 172 pools were selected based on seasons and analyzed for Yersinia pestis Pla genes, while 62 pools were tested for Rickettsia species gltA, ompA, and 17kDA genes by qPCR and Sanger sequencing. Results: Five flea species were identified from the collections: Ctenocephalides canis, C. felis, Echidnophaga gallinacea, Pulex irritans, and Xenopsylla cheopis. Ctenocephalides was the predominant genus, accounting for 84.8% of fleas collected, mostly found on dogs and goats. Except for P. irritans (which was found in Gulu district) the other four flea species were found across all districts, year-round, with higher numbers collected in dry seasons compared to rainy seasons (c2=47.64, df=20, p<0.001). Rattus rattus constituted 74% of rodents captured from human dwellings and was the only rodent species with fleas, where X. cheopis was the predominant species and E. gallinacea found on only three rodents. All 172 pools of fleas tested negative for Yersinia pestis. Of the 62 pools tested for Rickettsia spp., 29 (46.8%) were positive. Twenty-five PCR amplicons were successfully sequenced for 17kDa and two for ompA genes. Based on 17kDa, two were identified as R. felis from C. canis and 23 were R. asembonensis from multiple flea species, including C. canis collected goats and C. felis from cats. Conclusion: Our survey identified a high pooled detection rate (~50%) of Rickettsia spp. in fleas tested, suggesting a potential risk of human exposure and infection. Rickettsia felis and R. asembonensis were the predominant flea-borne Rickettsia spp. identified, with this study also representing the first report of Rickettsia spp. in E. gallinacea in Uganda.
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    Molecular detection of Coxiella burnetii in ticks collected from animals and the environment in Uganda
    (Zoonoses and Public Health, 2024) Eneku, Wilfred; Erima, Bernard; Maranda Byaruhanga, Anatoli; Nora, Cleary; Atim, Gladys; Tugume, Titus; Ukuli, Qouilazoni Aquino; Kibuuka, Hannah; Mworozi, Edison; Tweyongyere, Robert; Christina, E. Douglas; Jeffrey, W. Koehler; Michael, E. von Fricken; Wabwire-Mangen, Fred; Byarugaba, Denis K.
    Aims Coxiella burnetii is a highly infectious organism that is easily spread through aerosols causing Q fever in humans. Ticks can harbour and transmit C. burnetii to animals, contributing to disease maintenance. Our aim was to examine the presence of C. burnetii in ticks in Uganda. Methods and Results In this study, ticks were collected from five Ugandan districts and tested by real-time PCR for C. burnetii (Coxiella outer membrane protein 1 gene). A total of 859 tick pools (9602 individual ticks) were tested, and pool positivity for C. burnetii was 5.5% (n = 47). Pooled prevalence differed by district; the highest was Luwero (7.3%), then Gulu (6.6%), and Kasese had the lowest (1.3%). However, district variation was not statistically significant (Fisher's exact = 0.07). Ticks collected from dogs and cats had the highest positivity rates [23/47, (48.9%)] followed by livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs) [18/47, (38.3%)] and vegetation [6/47, (12.8%)]. Haemaphysalis elliptica had the highest infection rates, followed by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipicephalus decoloratus had similar prevalence. Conclusions Although ticks are not the primary transmitters of C. burnetii to humans, pathogen detection in ticks can be an indirect indicator of risk among animal hosts. Vulnerable populations, including occupations with close animal contact such as farming, butchery, and veterinary practice, have an increased risk of C. burnetii exposure. Veterinarians and clinicians should be aware that C. burnetii may cause human and animal illness in these regions.
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    Porcine Circovirus type 2 – Systemic disease on pig farms and associated knowledge of key players in the pig industry in Central Uganda
    (International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 2018) Eneku, Wilfred; Mutebi, Francis; Mwiine, Frank Norbert; Okwee-Acai, James; Ojok, Lonzy
    Porcine Circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infections and associated diseases have been rarely studied in Africa. There is no report of PCV2 infection-associated morbidity and the level of awareness of stakeholders has never been investigated in Uganda. This cross sectional survey investigated the occurrence of Porcine Circovirus type 2 – systemic disease (PCV2-SD) among pigs and the associated level of awareness of stakeholders in Central Uganda. Data were collected using questionnaires, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews and laboratory investigations. All respondents (n = 131) and farmers attending FGDs (n = 31) had never heard of PCV2-SD and only 16.7% (n = 2) of the interviewed animal health workers (n = 12) knew about the disease. Among the farms, 20 piglets presenting with a chronic wasting and a persistent diarrhea were detected and sampled for laboratory investigations. Severe lymphoid depletion with histiocytic and macrophage infiltration in lymphoid organs (n = 8), shortening of intestinal villi (n = 9), abscesses in various organs (n = 15) and granulomatous pneumonia (n = 2) were the major histopathological lesions described. Immunohistochemistry and PCR assays on organs with implicating lesions confirmed PCV2 infection in 25% (n = 5) of the 20 pigs. The study confirmed the occurrence of PCV2 infections among piglets with persistent diarrhea on pig farms in central Uganda and revealed a low level of associated knowledge among farmers and veterinary practitioners. The study arouses the need for systematic studies on prevalence of PCV2 infections and sensitization of stakeholders on occurrence of PCV2 infections in Uganda.
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    Reflections on Drivers for the Emergence and Spread of Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria Detected from Chickens reared on Commercial Layer Farms in Mukono District, Uganda
    (Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 2023) Kakooza, Steven; Tayebwa, Dickson Stuart; Njalira, Kassim Rashid; Kayaga, Edrine Beatrice; Asiimwe, Ismail; Komugisha, Mariam; Wanyana, Mariam; Kisekka, Raymond; Kyabarongo, Alex; Kiryabwire, David H.; Nabatta, Esther; Eneku, Wilfred
    Purpose We investigated the fecal carriage of antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli and potential practices influencing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) dynamics among poultry farm settings in Mukono District, Uganda. Methods Twenty-nine commercial layer farms were visited and samples collected from 10 birds. The samples were then subjected to culture and sensitivity testing. The investigative framework for antimicrobial stewardship practices (IFAP) was used as a participatory tool to generate data through interviews and observations on antimicrobial use, drivers for use, players, and actions following non-responsive treatment outcomes. Results The cultures done on 290 cloacal swabs yielded a total of 273 Escherichia coli isolates (94.1% recovery rate) which were tested in vitro for their sensitivity to different antibiotics. The prevalence of multi-drug resistant E. coli was 59.3% (162/273). A high prevalence of resistance to tetracycline (91.6%, n = 250) and trimethoprim sulphamethoxazole (70.3%, n = 192) was noted. In this collection of isolates, the prevalence of molecular determinants associated with the predominant phenotypes was; tetA (79.3%; 138/174), tetB (17.2%; 30/174), tetC (7.5%; 13/174), sul1 (11.5%; 20/174), and sul2 (60.3%; 105/174). Responses derived using the IFAP revealed several vices related to misuse and overuse of antibiotics, a threat to the poultry industry. The farmers also reported habits of selling off sick birds for slaughter when treatment outcomes were non-responsive. Such a practice could drive dissemination of antimicrobial resistant organisms and antibiotic residues to the consumers of those poultry products. Conclusion The IFAP tool was useful and can be modified, and adopted for use in engaging agricultural communities in participatory AMR surveillance. A high carriage of multi-drug resistant E. coli was detected in the birds. On these farms, the worrying antimicrobial stewardship practices discovered could be sponsoring the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in the Ugandan context.
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    Retrospective study on cattle and poultry diseases in Uganda
    (International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine, 2017) Byaruhanga, Joseph; Tayebwa, Dickson S.; Eneku, Wilfred; Afayoa, Mathias; Mutebi, Francis; Ndyanabo, Susan; Kakooza, Steven; Okwee-Acai, James; Tweyongyere, Robert; Wampande, Eddie M.; Vudriko, Patrick
    Cattle and poultry enterprises are among the major contributors to food security and socioeconomic empowerment of households in Uganda. However, various diseases constrain their productivity. A two-year retrospective study between April 2012 and March 2014 was conducted using records for cattle and poultry diseases diagnosed at the Central Diagnostic Laboratory (CDL) to determine prevalent diseases in Uganda. The laboratory received 836 samples from poultry (36.3%) and cattle (63.7%). Of the 836 samples, 47.5% had a definitive diagnosis of disease causation. Most of the cattle and poultry diseases diagnosed were protozoan diseases (39.3%) followed by bacterial (21.4%), viral (17.1%), helminthiasis (11.1%), nutritional diseases (4%) and others (7.1%). For poultry, viral diseases (29.5%) and protozoan diseases (27.1%) especially newcastle disease (44.3%) and coccidiosis (100%) respectively, were the most diagnosed. While for cattle, hemo-protozoan parasites (52.1%) were the most prevalent, of which 92.9% were east coast fever infection. Bacterial infection (20.5%) in cattle were the second most diagnosed diseases and mastitis was the most diagnosed (46.2%). In summary, coccidioisis, collibacillosis, newcastle disease, gumboro disease, and avian helminthiasis were the most prevalent poultry diseases while in cattle, east coast fever, helminthiasis, mastitis, brucellosis and rabies were the most frequently diagnosed diseases. This study has identified the major diseases that hinder poultry and cattle production in Uganda. The data generated by CDL could be used for surveillance, monitoring and designing strategic interventions for control of poultry and cattle diseases in Uganda.
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    Seroprevalence of Q-fever, spotted fever, typhus group Rickettsia and Orientia among febrile patients visiting hospital-based sentinel sites in Uganda
    (PAMJ - One Health, 2023) Eneku, Wilfred; Erima, Bernard; Byaruhanga, Anatoli Maranda; Nora, Gillian Cleary; Atim, Gladys; Tugume, Titus; Ukuli, Qouilazoni Aquino; Kibuuka, Hannah; Mworozi, Edison; Christina, Douglas; Jeffrey, William Koehler; Michael, Emery von Fricken; Biryomumaisho, Savino; Tweyongyere, Robert; Wabwire-Mangen, Fred; Byarugaba, Denis Karuhize
    Introduction: rickettsioses are emerging zoonotic febrile illnesses transmitted to humans by ticks, fleas, lice, and mites. Q-fever, Spotted fever group (SFG), Typhus group (TG) rickettsia and Scrub typhus (STG) have been reported with varying prevalence across East Africa. However, little is known about the burden of exposure in Uganda. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of rickettsial diseases in Uganda. Methods: a total of 460 archived serum samples collected from patients with fever of unknown origin after screening across five hospital-based sentinel sites were analysed. The samples were collected during 18-month period of active surveillance for acute febrile illnesses, from January 2018 through June 2019. We performed IgM ELISA tests on the 460 sera for SFG and TG rickettsia, IgM IFA for STG and Phase 2 IgG ELISA for Q-fever. We also assessed risk factors associated with the serostatus. Results: the population comprised predominantly children, had balanced gender proportions, with 66% coming from rural areas. The overall seroprevalence of SFG rickettsiosis was 6.3%; however, 11.5% and 10.8% prevalence rates were observed in Gulu and Bwera hospitals respectively. This was higher than the 3.7% observed in the capital city Kampala, although the differences were not statistically significant (Fisher's exact = 0.489). Overall seropositivity of Q-fever was 7.6%, although Bwera Hospital had the highest rate (12.5%) and Mulago had the lowest rate (2%). The differences were not considered statistically significant (Fishers exact= 0.075). Increasing age (OR-adjusted=1.4, 95%CI=1.0-1.9, p=0.026) and rural background (OR-adjusted=2.6, 95%CI=1.6- 6.4, p=0.037) were both significantly associated with seropositivity for Q-fever, while only increasing age had higher odds for seropositivity for SFG rickettsia (OR-adjusted= 1.9, 95% CI= 1.4- 2.6, p<0.001). One serum sample of a 10-monthold male from Bwera hospital was reactive to both SFG and Q-fever antibodies. We found four sera reactive cases to typhus group IgM and another four reactive to Orientia spp. IgM. However, we were not able to determine associating factors due to low seropositivity rates. Conclusion: here, we report for the first time the seroprevalence of Qfever, SFG and STG in febrile patients in Uganda. This report also provides the second study in over five decades since the earliest report of TG rickettsia. Testing for these pathogens in patients with acute febrile illness with unknown etiology may hold value, however more studies are required to provide information on disease ecology, risk factors, and transmission dynamics of these pathogens in Uganda.
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    Spatio-temporal analysis of sheep and goat pox outbreaks in Uganda during 2011–2022
    (BMC Veterinary Research, 2023) Nizeyimana, Gerald; Vudriko, Patrick; Erume, Joseph; Mubiru, Frank; Eneku, Wilfred; Biryomumaisho, Savino; Mwebe, Robert; Arinaitwe, Eugene; Rose, Ademun; Atim, Stella; Ayebazibwe, Chrisostom; Muhanguzi, Dennis; Tweyongyere, Robert
    Background Sheep and goat pox (SGP) caused by sheep poxvirus (SPV) and goat poxvirus (GPV) respectively; are transboundary and World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH)-notifiable viral diseases. There is barely any coherent information about the distribution and prevalence of SGP for Uganda. We therefore conducted this study to describe the temporal and spatial distribution of SGP suspected outbreaks in Uganda for the period 2011–2020 as well as serologically confirm presence of SGP antibodies in suspected SGP outbreaks reported in 2021–2022. Results Thirty-seven [37] SGP outbreaks were reported across the country during the study period. North-eastern region [that comprises of Karamoja region] had the highest number of outbreaks [n = 17, 45%]; followed by Central [n = 9, 2.4%], Northern [n = 8, 2.2%] and Western region [n = 3, 0.08%]. Reports from district veterinary personnel indicate that the prevalence of; and mortality rate and case fatality rate associated with SGP were 0.06%, 0.02% and 32% respectively. There was a steady increase in the number of reported SGP outbreaks [x̄ = 4] over the study period. Seropositivity of SGPV antibodies in outbreak sheep and goats that were investigated during the study period [2021–2022] was [n = 41, 27%, 95 CI;] Conclusion Our analyses of SGPV passive and active reports indicate that SGP is present in Uganda with a decade long average of four outbreaks per annum. During this period, about a third of all SGPV-clinically infected animals died. SPG is therefore a major constraint to small ruminant health and productivity in Uganda. Introduction of animals from infected herds and breach in farm biosecurity were the most important predictors of SGP outbreaks. In addition to the already existing SGP commercial vaccines, small ruminant screening for SGPV before introducing them to naïve herds and ensuring on farm biosecurity should be part of the SGP control tool pack for Ugandan small ruminant farmers.
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    The danger of free roaming dogs in urban settings: A report of two suspected rabid dogs on rampage that inicted 47 bites to people and domestic animals in peri-urban Uganda
    (Reseaech Sqaure, 2023) Tayebwa, Dickson; Njalira, Kassim Rashid; Eneku, Wilfred; Ssekandi, Colin; Kyabarongo, Alex; Mutesasira, Jesse; Komugisha, Mariam; Atim, Stella Acaye; Kateregga, John; Muhangi, Denis; Tweyongyere, Robert; Tony, Lawrence Goldberg; Biryomumaisho, Savino; Okwee Acai, James
    Background Human rabies cases associated with bites from rabid roaming dogs are prevalent in Uganda. Unfortunately, there is limited documentation of the circumstances surrounding those bites. Here, we documented dog attacks to humans and animals in two peri-urban areas in Central Uganda. Methods We responded to alerts of two suspected rabid dogs on rampage. We traced the dogs responsible for the attacks to diagnose the cause of the aggression and we interviewed the victims and community members to determine the circumstances of the bites and health care sought by the victims. We scheduled follow-up visits after 40 days, to assess compliance of the victims to rabies postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) and to document any challenges encountered in the process. Results The two rabid dogs inflicted 47 recorded attacks to 29 humans, mostly children (75.8%) and 18 domestic animals in Matugga and Mawale parishes in Wakiso and Luweero districts, respectively. Two individuals washed the wound with water and 7 individuals reported to the health facility for treatment in accordance with the WHO-guidelines for preclinical management of bites from suspected rabies cases. By contrast, 17 individuals sought treatment from a traditional healer while 5 individuals self-medicated with herbs at home. We advised those individuals to visit health facilities for proper medical care. All the victims started rabies PEP treatment; however, 2 individuals did not complete their prescription. Although rabies PEP at public health facilities was free, regularly the victims paid 3–5 USD to the clinician as an incentive while the cost at private health facilities was 13–15 USD for a single dose. Due to the unprovoked attacks, the victims and local leaders advocated for elimination of roaming dogs, but the roaming dog owners objected. Conclusions Overall, our results demonstrate the outsized impact that a single-rabid dog can have on a community. They also reveal how poverty, knowledge gaps, community trust in traditional healers, and barriers to healthcare access negatively affect medical care given to dog bite victims in this setting. Educational campaigns and control of roaming dogs should help improve the situation in Central Uganda, as well as in other socioeconomically similar settings.
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    The danger of free-roaming dogs in peri urban settings: Two rabid dogs on rampage that bit 29 humans and 18 domestic animals in Wakiso and Luweero districts, Central Uganda
    (Research Square, 2024) Tayebwa, Dickson Stuart; Njalira, Kassim Rashid; Eneku, Wilfred; Ssekandi, Colin; Kyabarongo, Alex; Mutesasira, Jesse; Komugisha, Mariam; Atim, Stella Acaye; Kateregga, John; Muhangi, Denis; Tweyongyere, Robert; Biryomumaisho, Savino; Okwee Acai, James
    Background Uganda averages 14,000 dog bites annually, with 86% caused by free-roaming dogs. Unfortunately, there is limited documentation to inform interventions. Here, we documented circumstances of attacks from free-roaming dogs on rampage in Central Uganda to identify critical gaps in the detection, preparedness, and response of the community. Methods We conducted an exploratory case study to actively survey attacks from rampaging dogs in Kampala Metropolitan Area, Central Uganda between November 2022 - November 2023. We traced the dogs responsible to immobilise and rule out rabies. We interviewed the victims and community to determine the circumstances of the bites, the healthcare sought and sentiments towards free-roaming dogs. We followed-up after 40 days, to assess adherence to rabies post exposure prophylaxis and to document any challenges encountered. Results Of the 8 cases reported, only two cases that occurred in Matugga and Mawale parishes fulfilled our criteria for rampage while the rest were predation, an incidental bite and straying into someone’s residence. The two rampaging dogs’ bit 29 humans, mostly children (75.8%) and 18 domestic animals. Immobilisation in Matugga failed while the dog in Mawale was killed by the community in a mob. Due to limited knowledge, 93.1% of the victims did not wash the wound and go the medical facility as recommended by WHO. Instead, they sought healthcare from the traditional healer (58.6%), stayed home or applied herbs (20.7%). Parallel with our advice, those victims sought medical care however they encountered challenges not limited to lack of funds and poor services at public health facilities. After inflicting bites, the dogs responsible and other free-roaming dogs were killed by hitting them with sticks in a mob. Conclusions Overall, our findings demonstrate the impact that a lone free-roaming dog with rabies can have on a community. They also reveal how poverty, limited awareness, reliance on traditional healers, and barriers to medical care access impede health care received by dog bite victims in this setting. Implementing educational campaigns and responsible ownership of free-roaming dogs should help reduce dog bites and rabies in Central Uganda, as well as in other socioeconomically similar settings.
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    Training manual for frontline animal extension service providers on antimicrobial resistance in poultry production
    (Uganda Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, 2023) Kakooza, Steven; Eneku, Wilfred; Ayebare, Dreck; Ndoboli, Dickson; Mbatidde, Irene; Waiswa, Joshua; Barasa, Martin; Kristina, Roesel; Arshnee, Moodley
    The poultry industry is rapidly growing in Uganda and the products from the industry are widely consumed by many the domestic and regional population. Chickens are the most widely distributed livestock among households in Uganda, 31% (3.4 million) households are engaged in poultry as a source of income and food (Annual Agricultural survey, 2019). The number of chickens has increased by 23% in recent years from 35.8 million chicken in 2016 to 44.2 million in 2020 (MAAIF statistical abstract, 2021). According to the 2009 livestock census, 99% of the chicken owning households had indigenous chickens. These were mainly found in the Eastern and Northern parts of Uganda while the exotic chickens were more in the Central region. The exotic chicken population is estimated to be 850,000 chicks per week and 130,000-layer day-old chicks per week based on production capacities of the major hatcheries in the country (UDC, 2022). Other poultry species kept for meat or eggs include ducks, turkeys, guinea fowls, and pigeons and their population is estimated at 2.2 million. Despite the many advantages of rearing chicken, some people have abandoned the business due to unforeseen challenges or production requirements that were not anticipate. Some of the challenges include; persistent disease outbreaks, poor flock performance (low production) and inability to recover investment costs. Chickens are frequently exposed to disease causing agents within the environment including the household, introduced from outside by caretakers or other animals due to weak biosecurity measures and overstocking. These challenges lead to indiscriminate use of antibiotics in poultry throughout the production cycle; a phenomenon that has greatly contributed to antimicrobial resistance. Farmers use antibiotics for treatment, prophylaxis and growth promotion and many of them access and administer antibiotics to chicken without prescription. This has led to increased cost of production through heavy expenditure on antibiotics and loss of stock. Antibiotic resistance is a major threat to the poultry industry in Uganda and multidrug resistant bacteria from farms have been reported. According to Kakooza et al., 2021, in their retrospective study at the central diagnostic laboratory, multidrug resistance was established for E. Coli and Salmonella spp in poultry). The resistant organisms may contaminate human food and water sources and cause infections in humans that are difficult to treat. The waste from poultry houses with resistant bacteria is a potential source of contamination of crops such as vegetables that are grown using chicken manure. Good production practices are key in reducing the burden of diseases, frequency of drug use, reduce production costs overtime and minimize the risk of microorganisms becoming resistant to antimicrobial drugs. The adage of “prevention is better than cure” is much applicable in poultry production.
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    Wide distribution of Mediterranean and African spotted fever agents and the first identification of Israeli spotted fever agent in ticks in Uganda
    (PLOS NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES, 2023) Eneku, Wilfred; Erima, Bernard; Maranda Byaruhanga, Anatoli; Atim, Gladys; Tugume, Titus; Ukuli, Qouilazoni A.; Kibuuka, Hannah; Mworozi, Edison; Christina, Douglas; Jeffrey, W. Koehler; Nora, G. Cleary; Michael, E. von Fricken; Tweyongyere, Robert; Wabwire-Mangen, Fred; Karuhize Byarugaba, Denis
    Rickettsia microorganisms are causative agents of several neglected emerging infectious diseases in humans transmitted by arthropods including ticks. In this study, ticks were collected from four geographical regions of Uganda and pooled in sizes of 1–179 ticks based on location, tick species, life stage, host, and time of collection. Then, they were tested by real-time PCR for Rickettsia species with primers targeting gltA, 17kDa and ompA genes, followed by Sanger sequencing of the 17kDa and ompA genes. Of the 471 tick pools tested, 116 (24.6%) were positive for Rickettsia spp. by the gltA primers. The prevalence of Rickettsia varied by district with Gulu recording the highest (30.1%) followed by Luwero (28.1%) and Kasese had the lowest (14%). Tick pools from livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs) had the highest positivity rate, 26.9%, followed by vegetation, 23.1%, and pets (dogs and cats), 19.7%. Of 116 gltA-positive tick pools, 86 pools were positive using 17kDa primers of which 48 purified PCR products were successfully sequenced. The predominant Rickettsia spp. identified was R. africae (n = 15) in four tick species, followed by R. conorii (n = 5) in three tick species (Haemaphysalis elliptica, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and Rh. decoloratus). Rickettsia conorii subsp. israelensis was detected in one tick pool. These findings indicate that multiple Rickettsia spp. capable of causing human illness are circulating in the four diverse geographical regions of Uganda including new strains previously known to occur in the Mediterranean region. Physicians should be informed about Rickettsia spp. as potential causes of acute febrile illnesses in these regions. Continued and expanded surveillance is essential to further identify and locate potential hotspots with Rickettsia spp. of concern.