Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjve20 Journal of Vocational Education & Training ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjve20 Oil, transport, water and food: a political- economy-ecology lens on VET in a climate changing world Heila Lotz-Sisitka, Simon McGrath & Presha Ramsarup To cite this article: Heila Lotz-Sisitka, Simon McGrath & Presha Ramsarup (2024) Oil, transport, water and food: a political-economy-ecology lens on VET in a climate changing world, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 76:2, 281-306, DOI: 10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Published online: 11 Mar 2024. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 242 View related articles View Crossmark data https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjve20 https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjve20?src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=rjve20&show=instructions&src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=rjve20&show=instructions&src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910?src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910?src=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910&domain=pdf&date_stamp=11 Mar 2024 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910&domain=pdf&date_stamp=11 Mar 2024 Oil, transport, water and food: a political-economy- ecology lens on VET in a climate changing world Heila Lotz-Sisitka a, Simon McGrath b and Presha Ramsarup c aEnvironmental Learning Research Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda, South Africa; bSchool of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; cCentre for Researching Education and Labour, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa ABSTRACT In this paper, drawing on an extensive research project across three countries (VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023), we produce an emerging argument that it is necessary to rethink and reframe VET logics and approaches in a warming future dominated by informality and mass unemployment. Currently,neither the formal VET college or workplace are adequately set up to provide the type(s) of VET that are in demand or needed for just transitioning and sustainable futures. We acknowledge the importance of political econ omy accounts in developing a richer understanding of VET, but suggest these are not sufficient for dealing with the existential and practical crisis of the climate emergency. We note that many scholars have sought to address this tension in the academic literature by adopting a political ecology account that reframes the theoretical and political challenge. This leads us to call for a political-economy-ecology account of VET. Although we acknowledge the limited nature of our approach here, we offer some thoughts for VET analysis with reflection on these theoretical issues applied to four cases studies from Uganda and South Africa of VET provisioning in oil, transport, water and food (which materially shape our cases). ARTICLE HISTORY Received 20 October 2023 Accepted 9 January 2024 KEYWORDS Political-ecology; political- economy; vocational education and training; just transitions; sustainable futures Introduction: VET in a climate changing world It is increasingly implausible that we can stop global warming below 2°C. In 2021, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2021) issued a ‘red alert’ for humanity, noting climate change to be one of the most severe challenges facing human societies for decades and potentially centuries to come. Building on swathes of research on climate change, there is much talk about a new ‘geological epoch’, named the ‘Anthropocene’, in which human activity related mainly to fossil-based pollution, is impacting earth system CONTACT Simon McGrath Simon.McGrath@glasgow.ac.uk JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 2024, VOL. 76, NO. 2, 281–306 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5193-9881 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2312-5378 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6747-3094 http://www.tandfonline.com https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/13636820.2024.2320910&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2024-04-10 stability, ushering in completely new conditions for human activity and devel opment (Steffen et al. 2011; Steffen, Crutzen, and McNeill 2007), with devastat ing effects on existing life as we know it. While all continents are facing the impacts of climate change already, Africa (not unlike those other contexts where poverty remains a persistent reality for many) is particularly vulnerable, with more extreme and intense weather becoming far more frequent, and also destructive of infrastructure, lives, homes, and development gains. These challenges arise partly from centuries of development and political economy thinking that has failed to adequately recognise or include political ecology and incorporate it in associated VET models and trajectories. It is the latter issue that we address in this paper. There are numerous calls for ‘concerted action’, and multiple studies at national, regional and international levels continue to confirm the seriousness of the impending impacts of climate change and ongoing ecological degrada tion, many of which are already visible to communities, cities and governments. Responses being conceptualised range from setting global sustainable devel opment goals, investing in mitigating socio-technical transitions, and social movement action focused on how to ensure that transitions to sustainability are just, leaving no-one behind. These macro trends have implications for VET, but as yet, responses from the VET sector are largely reactive, piecemeal, and ‘add on’ in nature, rather than more systemically substantive, a perspective that was confirmed in our research as will be discussed below (VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023). The IPCC is warning that short term adaptation strategies and add on approaches may not be enough and that longer term thinking and deep transformation is needed to fully consider the impending implications of over shooting the 1.5° and 2°C targets. This is because adaptation measures may prove to be inadequate and complete transformations to new livelihoods that are suitable for a 2°C+ world may be needed. How should VET reframe in such a context? This is the question we broadly consider in this paper. In so doing, we need to be explicit that this is an area requiring much more thought and much more empirical work. What we offer here are some initial provocations that build on our initial empirical work but also serve to highlight the limitations of that work as well as the field more generally. The current engagement from VET literatures For more than a decade, there has been a skills policy literature that has focused on greening growth. This has had two main strands. First, a focus on green jobs and skills (e.g. Cedefop 2012; International Labour Organisation 2011; OECD 2011; United Nations Environment Programme 2011). Second, a focus on green ing public VET providers, most closely associated with the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre (e.g. Fien, Maclean, and Park 2008; Majumdar 2010; Pavlova 282 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. 2018). Though this work is largely reformist rather than transformational, it is nonetheless a genuine and positive set of attempts to infuse an environmental concern into a VET system that has largely ignored such imperatives. However, a parallel academic literature has been slow to develop. In its first 75 years, the Journal of Vocational Education and Training published only two articles with titles including sustainab* and both are narrow (Coll, Taylor, and Nathan 2003; Liu et al. 2020). Green skills appear neither in JVET titles or in keywords (but are discussed in McGrath et al. 2020) and appear rarely in other leading journals. This is the heart of the rationale for this special issue and this paper. From the education for sustainable development side, on the other hand, there has been little engagement with questions of skills and VET, the focus being much more on schooling and higher education, reflecting VET’s often marginal place in the educational research literature. However, our recent books (Rosenberg, Ramsarup, and Lotz-Sisitka 2020; VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023) mark an attempt to deepen the engagement between VET and ESD traditions and begin a more substantive discussion of VET’s role in addressing the climate crisis. In this paper, we are concerned with building on those books (the latter in particular) and trying to move the debate on VET and climate responsiveness to a more theoretical level. In doing so, we should acknowledge the work of Anderson (2008) who argued for reframing VET away from a productivist narra tive alone to include an ecologist narrative more explicitly. It is a failing of the VET literature that this challenge has been largely ignored. Our aim here is to build an account that considers what the rise of political ecology literature might mean for thinking about VET. In so doing, we will look at the points of intersection between political ecology and political economy and the construction of a political-economy-ecology lens. Of course, a political economy tradition is one of the most prominent strands of the existing VET literature (McGrath and Yamada 2023; McGrath et al. 2020). This literature has focused both on the institutional arrangements that shape national skills formation systems and how this is interrelated to firm-level decisions about work organisation and hence skills utilisation (e.g. Busemeyer and Iverson 2014; Soskice and Hall 2001; Thelen 2004). However, it has not had a significant ecological dimension. Indeed, in its historical and comparative concerns, it has been largely an account of modernisation, industrialisation and development as conventionally understood, with some attempts to explain the underdevelopment of national skills regimes, particularly as it has expanded to the global South. Moreover, in its modernising mode, it is overwhelmingly focused on the formal sector, on the urban space, and the industrial sphere. Whilst some scholars have begun to talk of the colonial legacy and the extrac tive basis of Southern industrialisation (e.g. Allais 2022; Swartz 2016), this is still underdeveloped. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 283 Nonetheless, this literature is vital in emphasising the ways that systems evolve historically and reflect the complexities of national political-economic configurations in ways that reflect the foundational influence of Marx on this approach. Against simplistic faith in capitalism, the market, or naïve policy transfer, the approach stresses the need to look into system dynamics for the obstacles and opportunities that will shape the likely success of innovations designed to make VET more inclusive and sustainable. Historically, this literature has been more focused at the macro level but there are signs of a growing awareness that the approach needs to be more multi-level. As we will suggest below, there is also potential for a greater engagement with political ecology concerns. However, presently, in these VET literatures there is very little sense of the ways in which the wider global political economy has resulted in what Malm (2016) calls ‘fossil capitalism’ or its particular extractivist logic as it impacts upon the global South. To put it bluntly, VET has been complicit in these processes (McGrath and Russon 2023), and we need new approaches that help break out of this. The absence of a more critically constituted engagement on the role of VET in fossil capital, extractivism, and commodification of public goods, may be because the former colonies, now so-called ‘developing economies’ are largely defined by dominant geopolitical powers as ‘natural resource economies’ with the often taken for granted assumption being that these resources should be exploited for extraction and exportation in order to fuel a ‘catch up’ model of development, even in so-called ‘sustainable development’ forms. Such devel opment logically requires skills that can support the extraction and exportation of natural resources, with one of the most explicit examples being the oil industry, but the same logics also shape the mining and biodiversity extraction industries. The locally experienced commodification and privatisation of natural resources such as water and forests is also beyond the focus of the main stream VET literature. Rather, conventional VET is more comfortable in discussing what skills are needed to extract, process, and transport oil (Dietsche 2020), manage water at the municipal level (Ochieng et al. 2015), or how to fell and process trees effectively (Kelly and Brown 2019). Even then, such work is more likely to be found in sector-specific journals rather than the VET mainstream, with its strong focus on secondary and tertiary industry. Where it does tackle issues such as sustainability, its focus is most likely to be on improving skills to reduce waste, rather than ask more critical questions about extractivism or fossil capitalism. Indeed, the silence of the political economy of skills tradition here is marked, with only (Evans and Stroud’s 2016) article on ‘varieties of capitalism and the “green ing” of skills’ offering a small pointer towards combining the two discourses. 284 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Nonetheless, a political-economy-ecology convergence is more apparent above the level of the skills debate. Here, authors, such as Ciccantell and Patten (2016), reflect on the ongoing dynamics of more than 500 years of extraction from the global South via colonial and neocolonial political econo mies. They chart how such practices have become habituated and normalised along with their negative social and environmental impacts through discourses of apparent development gains. They note that dirty industries in the North have also largely been ‘moved offshore’ to ‘developing’ economies who bear the brunt of pollution and social and health impacts of polluting industries. Due partly to skewed power relations in global geopolitics and political economies, engaging with such issues is not easy. Merino (2020, 58) points to ‘how neoliberal and post-neoliberal strategies under the political economy of resource extraction define the developmental trajectory of national regimes’. He argues that extractivism and neoliberalism in Latin America are ‘shaped, repro duced and defended in government spaces’ which produces a cynical if not contradictory state, which at the same time promulgates environmental regula tions that are not upheld, or are largely ignored. He argues with some salience that, in such contexts, states become ‘cynical’ because despite progressive regulations and political discourses, everyday actions of governing elites reinforce institutional and ideological constraints on the effectiveness of rights. The promises of pro-indigenous and environmental social reforms are limited from their very formulation because the practices and imaginaries of governing elites are embedded in extractive structures. (Merino 2020, 58) Admitting political ecology into the discourses governing and framing VET requires a fundamental reframing of VET away from provision of skills for extraction and commodification of public goods, and advancement of polluting and extraction industries (including offshore), to a form of VET that foregrounds more positive social and environmental impacts and contributions than has been the case to date. It requires a broadening of VET discourse beyond the current ‘powerful employer’ as frame for VET, to inclusion of both formal and informal economies, and more explicit engagement with ecological issues and political ecology contradictions that manifest in VET. A debate on political economy ‘meeting’ political ecology in VET may help to advance discussions on how VET could be/ought to be steered in times of climate change. Addressing the gap To address this gap, we consider historical and contemporary views on the connections that are emerging between political economy and political ecol ogy, in the context of four cases in our research that focus on oil, transport, water, and food in African VET contexts (cf. Table 1 below). Our intention is not to offer a comprehensive review of this area, or to undertake detailed case JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 285 Ta bl e 1. S um m at iv e vi ew o f t he fo ur e m pi ric al c as es (a da pt ed fr om V ET A fr ic a 4. 0 Co lle ct iv e 20 23 ). Fe at ur es o f t he c as es Sk ill s de ve lo pm en t se t up CA SE F O CU S: T RA N SP O RT PL A CE : e Th ek w en i, D ur ba n, S ou th A fr ic a A RE A : M et ro po lit an a re a, e Th ek w in i, po pu la tio n of c 3. 5 m ill io n pe op le ; f ou rt h bu si es t h ar bo ur in t he S ou th er n H em is ph er e EC O N O M IC S EC TO R FO CU S: In du st rie s ar ou nd t he h ar bo ur , w ith e m ph as is o n tr an sp or t an d lo gi st ic s as in flu en ce d by n ew d ev el op m en ts n ot ab ly t he S tr uc tu ra l I nf ra st ru ct ur e Pr og ra m m e (S IP ) 2 o f t he p os t- ap ar th ei d go ve rn m en t, ta rg et in g in fr as tr uc tu re fo r t he ‘B lu e Ec on om y’ (n am ed O pe ra tio n Ph ak is a) PO LI TI CA L- EC O LO G Y FO CU S: O pe ra tio n Ph ak is a w as m an da te d to b al an ce e m pl oy m en t an d en vi ro nm en t im pe ra tiv es . O U R RE SE A RC H IN TE RE ST : H ow a re V ET s ki lls b ei ng d ev el op ed fo r th e O pe ra tio n Ph ak is a m ar iti m e tr an sp or t an d lo gi st ic s se ct or in t hi s co nt ex t? CO N TE XT : U rb an in du st ri al H IS TO RY : c ol on ia l a nd a pa rt he id h is to ry w ith ra ci al a nd a cc es s in eq ua lit ie s in th e sk ill s sy st em , a do m in an t pa ra di gm o f s er vi ng in du st ria l s ki lls , a nd n eg le ct o f i nf or m al s ec to r sk ill s; un de rv al ui ng o f V ET s ki lls a nd s ec to r CH A N G ES : n ew c om pl ex s ki lls s ys te m p ut in p la ce a ft er 1 99 4, b ut it is s uff er in g fr om c o- or di na tio n ch al le ng es , a nd c ha ra ct er is ed b y dy sf un ct io na lit y IN ST IT U TI O N S: e Th ek w en i h as n um er ou s pu bl ic e du ca tio n an d tr ai ni ng in st itu tio ns , b ut n on e off er t ra in in g in m ar iti m e lo gi st ic s. Im po rt an t ac to rs in t he m ar iti m e tr an sp or t an d lo gi st ic s sk ill s sy st em in cl ud e th e pa ra st at al Tr an sn et , a nd t he t ra ns na tio na l c om pa ny G rin dr od , b ot h w ith t he ir ow n in -h ou se t ra in in g ac ad em ie s. A ne w p ub lic M ar iti m e Ac ad em y se t u p in 2 01 9 as a c en tr e of e xc el le nc e at th e uM fo lo zi T VE T Co lle ge in R ic ha rd s Ba y, 1 00 km n or th o f e Th ek w en i. Th is h as b ee n off er in g a su ite o f n ew m ar iti m e st ud ie s co ur se s, a cc re di te d by t he S ou th A fr ic an M ar iti m e Sa fe ty A ut ho rit y, s in ce 20 19 . (C on tin ue d) 286 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Ta bl e 1. (C on tin ue d) . Fe at ur es o f t he c as es Sk ill s de ve lo pm en t se t up CA SE F O CU S: O IL PL A CE : H oi m a, U ga nd a, lo ca te d in t he B un yo ro K ita ra K in gd om o f W es te rn U ga nd a; fa r fr om fa r fr om t he m aj or e co no m ic a nd p ol iti ca l c en tr es o f E as t Af ric a EC O N O M IC S EC TO R FO CU S: L itt le e co no m ic o r ed uc at io na l d ev el op m en t w ith a h ea vy re lia nc e on s ub si st en ce fa rm in g an d fis hi ng , s up pl em en te d by r em itt an ce s. H ow ev er , i n 20 06 , c om m er ci al ly e xp lo ita bl e oi l r es er ve s w er e id en tifi ed in L ak e Al be rt , w ith m ul tip lie r eff ec ts in t he e co no m y as a w ho le . S ig ni fic an t in ve st m en ts fr om o il an d ga s se ct or . D es pi te co nfl ic ts a nd d el ay s, e ar ly w or k on a n oi l r efi ne ry h as c om m en ce d, a n ai rp or t is u nd er co ns tr uc tio n an d m aj or ro ad s in to th e ar ea a re b ei ng u pg ra de d fr om th ei r p re vi ou s un pa ve d st at e. PO LI TI CA L- EC O LO G Y FO CU S: M ul ti- na tio na l o il in te re st s an d th ei r re la tio ns hi p to t he lo ca l po lit ic al e co no m y an d ec ol og y, in cl ud in g fa rm er s an d fis he rs ; a nd U ga nd a’ s cl im at e ch an ge m iti ga tio n im pe ra tiv es . O U R RE SE A RC H IN TE RE ST : H ow a re V ET s ki lls b ei ng d ev el op ed fo r t he e m er gi ng o il in du st ry in t hi s co nt ex t? CO N TE XT : P re do m in an tl y ru ra l, w it h em er gi ng u rb an d ev el op m en t a ro un d th e oi l fi nd ; i n 20 00 H oi m a w as g ra nt ed c ity s ta tu s H IS TO RY : A s of 2 00 0 th er e w er e no t m aj or p ub lic e du ca tio na l i ns tit ut io ns in t he a re a. CH A N G ES : U ga nd an g ov er nm en t, th e oi l c om pa ni es a nd a id d on or s ha ve a ll be in g tr yi ng t o br id ge t he g ap b et w ee n lo ca l s ki lls d ev el op m en t in t he r eg io n an d th e re qu ire m en ts fo r em pl oy m en t in t he n ew s ec to r, w hi ch is v as t. N ew p ro gr am m es a nd in st itu tio ns a re b ei ng se t up b y al l p ar tie s. V ET p ol ic y ch an ge s ha ve a ls o be en u nd er w ay , f ol lo w in g do no r- le d m od el s, w ith h ig h de pe nd en ce o n ex te rn al d on or s. IN ST IT U TI O N S: In 2 01 4 G ul u U ni ve rs ity s ta rt ed a s m al l b ra nc h ca m pu s in H oi m a. Pu bl ic v oc at io na l i ns tit ut io n bu ilt in 2 01 6. A nu m be r of s m al l p riv at e an d ch ur ch -b as ed v oc at io na l p ro vi de rs , o ffe rin g a br oa d ra ng e of co nv en tio na l v oc at io na l s ub je ct s (c on st ru ct io n tr ad es , m ot or m ec ha ni cs , t ai lo rin g) t o re la tiv el y sm al l c la ss es a nd w ith m od es t re so ur ce s, g ea re d to d om es tic , s ub si st en ce a nd sm al l s ca le e co no m ic a ct iv ity . M in is tr y of E ne rg y an d M in er al D ev el op m en t co m m is si on ed a B rit is h co ns ul ta nc y fir m t o pr od uc e a w or kf or ce s ki lls d ev el op m en t s tr at eg y fo r o il an d ga s (M EM D 2 01 5) , e m ph as is in g In te rm ed ia te a nd H ig h Sk ill s fr om U ga nd a, le ad in g to b ui ld in g of t he U ga nd a Pe tr ol eu m In st itu te K ig um ba (U PI K) , w ith W or ld B an k su pp or t, as o ne o f s ix n ew c en tr es o f e xc el le nc e un de r th e M oE S (2 01 9) . T he s ec to r is d om in at ed b y th e us e of in te rn at io na l q ua lifi ca tio ns . In te rn at io na l o il co m pa ni es w er e no t c on vi nc ed b y th e M EM D p la n; le ad in g to th e Sk ill s fo r O il an d G as in A fr ic a pr og ra m m e (S O G A) c o- fu nd ed b y th e Br iti sh , G er m an a nd N or w eg ia n go ve rn m en ts w ith a fo cu s on b ui ld in g sk ill s fo r em pl oy m en t (p ro vi de d m ai nl y by N G O s in bu si ne ss d ev el op m en t an d co ns tr uc tio n tr ad es , t he la tt er t o in te rn at io na l c ur ric ul a an d re su lti ng in in te rn at io na l c er tifi ca tio n) a nd s ub co nt ra ct in g el se w he re in t he v al ue c ha in . (C on tin ue d) JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 287 Ta bl e 1. (C on tin ue d) . Fe at ur es o f t he c as es Sk ill s de ve lo pm en t se t up CA SE F O CU S: W A TE R PL A CE : A lic e in th e Ra ym on d M hl ab a M un ic ip al ity , A m at ho le D is tr ic t, Ea st er n Ca pe (o ne o f t he po or es t pr ov in ce s in S ou th A fr ic a) . EC O N O M IC S EC TO R FO CU S: S m al lh ol de r fa rm in g or ie nt ed t ow ar ds c om m er ci al is at io n an d tr an sf or m at io n of th e ag ric ul tu ra l s ec to r; Lo ca l E co no m ic D ev el op m en t f oc us o n bl ac k sm al l ho ld er fa rm er s as la rg er c itr us in du st ry a nd g am e fa rm in g in du st rie s (la rg el y w hi te o w ne d fa rm s) fa il to in cl ud e la rg e po pu la tio ns , w ho r em ai n de pe nd en t on g ra nt s an d th e la nd fo r th ei r liv el ih oo ds . L im ite d sc op e fo r gr ow th in s ca le in t he lo ca l e co no m y du e to in te ns e su pe rm ar ke tis at io n an d w at er a cc es s ch al le ng es . S ta te e xp en di tu re , p ub lic s ec to r em pl oy m en t an d m on th ly s oc ia l g ra nt p ay m en ts (f or c hi ld re n, t he e ld er ly a nd t ho se w ith di sa bi lit ie s) c on st itu te k ey fu rt he r pi lla rs o f t he lo ca l fi na nc ia l e co no m y. PO LI TI CA L EC O LO G Y FO CU S: C ol on ia l L an d Ac t of 1 91 3 se t up t he a re a as la bo ur r es er ve o n m ar gi na l l an ds ; s m al lh ol de r fa rm in g m ar gi na l a ct iv ity . S m al l-s ca le fa rm in g of li ve st oc k, m ix ed c ro ps a nd h om e ga rd en in g un de rt ak en la rg el y on c om m un al ly -o w ne d la nd . Re la tiv el y ab un da nt w at er r es ou rc es in t he a re a, b ut t he se a re m on op ol is ed b y th e ci tr us in du st ry ; v as t m aj or ity o f s m al l s ca le fa rm in g ac tiv iti es a re c ar rie d ou t w ith ou t irr ig at io n, le av in g fa rm er s to r el y on t he r eg io n’ s su m m er r ai nf al l f or p ro du ct io n. In cr ea se d dr ou gh ts an d er ra tic r ai nf al l ( cl im at e ch an ge im pa ct s) c re at in g m or e pr es su re o n th e sm al l h ol de r fa rm in g ec on om y. F ar m er s st ru gg lin g to g et w at er t o th ei r la nd s. O U R RE SE A RC H IN TE RE ST : H ow a re V ET s ki lls b ei ng d ev el op ed fo r t he e m er gi ng s m al lh ol de r fa rm in g ec on om y in t hi s co nt ex t? CO N TE XT : R ur al , f or m er ‘B an tu st an ’ [ se pa ra tis t de ve lo pm en t un de r ap ar th ei d ar ea ] H IS TO RY : I n th e ed uc at io n se ct or , A lic e is h om e to t he h is to ric al ly p ro m in en t in st itu tio ns o f Lo ve da le S ch oo l a nd F or t H ar e U ni ve rs ity . B an tu E du ca tio n in flu en ce d bo th q ua lit y an d ac ce ss t o ed uc at io n in fo rm er h om el an d ar ea s. E du ca tio na l a tt ai nm en t is u ne ve n, a nd h ig h le ve l o f y ou th u ne m pl oy m en t (5 9% ). CH A N G ES : P ol ic y ch an ge is r eq ui rin g th e Ag ric ul tu ra l T ra in in g In st itu tio ns t o be co m e m or e or ie nt ed t ow ar ds s er vi ng lo ca l e co no m ie s. C ur re nt ly t he y ar e fo cu ss es o n la rg e sc al e ag ric ul tu re a nd h ig h en d irr ig at io n. T he re is n ee d to o rie nt m or e to w ar ds a b al an ce o f t hi s ty pe o f f ar m in g an d co m m er ci al is at io n of s m al lh ol de r fa rm in g. N ei th er c ol le ge le ct ur er s or ex te ns io n se rv ic es a re w el l e qu ip pe d fo r th is d em an d. IN ST IT U TI O N S: B es id es L ov ed al e an d Fo rt H ar e U ni ve rs ity , t he a re a al so h as a p ub lic t er tia ry ag ric ul tu ra l s ki lls p ro vi de r, th e Fo rt C ox A gr ic ul tu ra l a nd F or es tr y Tr ai ni ng In st itu te (F CA FT I), un de r th e D ep ar tm en t of A gr ic ul tu re , F or es tr y an d Fi sh er ie s, a nd a p ub lic T VE T co lle ge un de r t he D ep ar tm en t o f H ig he r E du ca tio n an d Tr ai ni ng . T he re a re a ls o st at e an d no n- s ta te ac to rs (N G O s, fa rm er s as so ci at io ns e tc .) en ga ge d w ith s ki lls d ev el op m en t or ie nt ed t ow ar ds sm al lh ol de r f ar m in g. R ho de s U ni ve rs ity ’s en vi ro nm en ta l l ea rn in g re se ar ch c en tr e al so a ct iv e in th e ar ea . A le ar ni ng n et w or k, Im vo th u Bu bo m i ( W at er is L ife ), w as e st ab lis he d by m ul tip le ac to rs in cl ud in g fa rm er s in 2 01 4 to s up po rt fa rm er s de ve lo p ra in w at er h ar ve st in g an d co ns er va tio n kn ow le dg e an d pr ac tic e, a nd to a dv an ce a gr o- ec ol og ic al fo od s ys te m p ra ct ic es in r es po ns e to la nd a nd w at er q ua lit y an d ac ce ss is su es . (C on tin ue d) 288 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Ta bl e 1. (C on tin ue d) . Fe at ur es o f t he c as es Sk ill s de ve lo pm en t se t up CA SE F O CU S: F O O D PL A CE : G ul u, in J ul y 20 20 it r ec ei ve d ci ty s ta tu s, a nd is m aj or u rb an c en tr e in A ch ol ila nd in no rt he rn U ga nd a. U nt il 20 06 , A ch ol ila nd w as ra va ge d by 3 0 ye ar s of c iv il w ar , n ot or io us fo r th e us e of c hi ld s ol di er s, w ith m uc h of th e po pu la tio n fo rc ed to li ve in in te rn al d is pl ac em en t ca m ps . EC O N O M IC S EC TO R FO CU S: M ai nl y ag ric ul tu re b ut o th er s m al l s ca le e nt er pr is es e m er gi ng (e .g . t ai lo rin g, c oo ki ng e tc .). E co no m ic a ct iv ity p rim ar ily d riv en b y ag ric ul tu re b ut t hi s is ha m pe re d by lo ng d is ta nc es fr om t he m aj or m ar ke ts o f E as t Af ric a. L oc al m ar ke ts fo r ag ric ul tu ra l g oo ds a re li m ite d, a s ar e op po rt un iti es t o ex po rt n at io na lly a nd in te rn at io na lly . A pu sh b y go ve rn m en t an d N G O s fo r su pp or tin g se lf em pl oy m en t. 15 y ea rs a ft er t he w ar , t he re is a r ea l s en se o f t ra ns fo rm at io n as p eo pl e ad ap t to p os tw ar se tt in gs . L iv es a re b ei ng r eb ui lt, b us in es se s ar e gr ow in g, r oa ds a re b ei ng p av ed a nd st re et lig ht s pu t up . G ul u is g ro w in g. PO LI TI CA L EC O LO G Y FO CU S: W ar c au se d si gn ifi ca nt c ha ng e fr om t ra di tio na l c om m un al a nd cl an -b as ed s ys te m t o a si tu at io n in w hi ch m uc h of t he la nd w as p riv at is ed a nd m an y lo st ac ce ss t o th e la nd . T ho se w ith li tt le a cc es s to la nd a re , u ns ur pr is in gl y, fa rm in g un su st ai na bl y. A la rg el y ill eg al m ar ke t in c ha rc oa l i s en co ur ag in g de fo re st at io n, fu rt he r ex ac er ba tin g la nd d eg ra da tio n. O U R RE SE A RC H IN TE RE ST : H ow a re V ET s ki lls b ei ng d ev el op ed fo r s us ta in ab le a gr ic ul tu re a nd ot he r fo rm s of s el f e m pl oy m en t in t hi s co nt ex t? CO N TE XT : P re do m in an tly r ur al , r ec en tly u rb an (c ity s ta tu s in 2 02 0) , p os t- co nfl ic t zo ne H IS TO RY : H is to ry 3 0 ye ar s of w ar e ro de d ed uc at io n an d tr ai ni ng in st itu tio ns in t he a re a. Yo ut hf ul p op ul at io n (c 70 % yo ut h) a nd u ne m pl oy m en t ra te s ar e ve ry h ig h. CH A N G ES : Y ou ng p eo pl e fr om r ur al a re as a re m ak in g th ei r w ay t o G ul u, d riv in g bo da b od a (m ot or cy cl e ta xi s) , a nd g en er al ly h us tli ng a s th ey c re at e pa th w ay s in th ei r p ur su it of d ec en t liv el ih oo ds a nd s us ta in ab le fu tu re s. V ib ra nt e co sy st em o f s ee m in gl y ch ao tic a nd e nt an gl ed w or ki ng , l ea rn in g an d liv in g ex is t. W ar a nd it s af te rm at h br ou gh t la rg e nu m be rs o f h um an ita ria n ag en ci es t o th e re gi on , w ith a la rg e nu m be r o f p ro gr am m es a im ed a t s ki lls d ev el op m en t a nd a gr ic ul tu re d ev el op m en t – a pu sh fo r se lf em pl oy m en t. IN ST IT U TI O N S: A fe w fo rm al V ET in st itu tio ns in t he r eg io n, b ot h pu bl ic a nd p riv at e. Co m pl em en tin g th es e is a v as t ar ra y of n on fo rm al t ra in in g pr og ra m m es a nd a la rg e in fo rm al se ct or , w ith y ou ng p eo pl e le ar ni ng t hr ou gh a pp re nt ic es hi ps a t sm al l b us in es se s, in N G O pr og ra m m es , o n Yo uT ub e, a nd fr om e ac h ot he r Th e m os t i m po rt an t p os ts ch oo l i ns tit ut io n in th e re gi on is G ul u U ni ve rs ity , f ou nd ed in 2 00 3. It s m ot to is “ fo r co m m un ity t ra ns fo rm at io n” , a nd it is in cr ea si ng ly p ro m ot in g or ga ni c fa rm in g an d su st ai na bi lit y th ro ug h its F ac ul ty o f A gr ic ul tu re . M an y of it s gr ad ua te s ar e lo ok in g to ad op t s us ta in ab le fa rm in g an d fo od p ra ct ic es . G ul u U ni ve rs ity h as a U N ES CO C ha ir in L ife lo ng Le ar ni ng , Y ou th a nd W or k th at p la ys a k ey ro le in a ni m at in g a ne tw or k be tw ee n yo ut h, c iv il so ci et y or ga ni sa tio ns (i nc lu di ng t he t ra di tio na l a ut ho rit y, t he K er K w ar o Ac ho li) , d on or s, N G O s an d no nf or m al t ra in in g pr ov id er s. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 289 analysis, but rather to open debate on the relationship between political econ omy and political ecology in VET research. We seek to do this with empirical examples that summatively illustrate the concerns as found in our contexts. The cases were developed as part of a more extensive study of VET histories and emerging practices that we undertook in a recent three-year research project involving a collective of 20 researchers at four universities in Uganda, South Africa and England (VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023). Our focus was to examine VET practices emerging in relation to oil, transport, water and food in these contexts as we figured this would allow us to consider the ways in which VET was or was not responding to issues relating to climate change, social and environmental justice concerns, and sustainable development. The project used a mixed method approach and included a long-term historical sociology of VET where we identified three dominant generations of VET in Africa (VET 1.0–3.0) all of which were shaped by colonial interests, early development state formation and more recently neo-liberal expansionist interests reflective of the trajectories of global capitalism. We named our project VET Africa 4.0 to begin to differ entiate an alternative to these trajectories that takes the connection between political economy and political ecology more seriously than we had found to be the case in the colonial period and in subsequent VET 1.0–3.0 periods (McGrath et al. 2020; VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023). Extensive empirical investigation of the four cases of VET emergence sum matively introduced in Table 1, involved face-to-face and online interviews and focus groups (with learners and staff in vocational institutions, employers in the formal and informal sectors, civil society actors and youth); participatory action research and boundary crossing expansive learning research with community groups and vocational college staff and university teams in what we termed a social skills ecosystem framing (Wedekind et al. 2021; Ramsarup, Lotz-Sisitka, and McGrath 2022; Ramsarup, McGrath, and Lotz-Sisitka 2023; VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023; cf. Spours’ paper in; Spours 2024). We also undertook analysis of social media interactions in learning networks (cf. Lotz-Sisitka et al. 2021); surveys of lecturers; analysis of policy texts; and critical reflections on team members’ work as policy and practice actors. This allowed us to consider how oil, transport, water and food (which materially partly define the cases in our study) are intimately embroiled in the challenge of rethinking VET logics and approaches mentioned above, for their historical, contemporary, and future relationships to climate change. To interpret these cases against the gap in VET literatures outlined above, we needed to develop theoretical perspectives that could offer tools for case analysis, which we present next. We start with literature- based views on political economy and political ecology and their connec tions and then consider literature focussing on just transitions. This helped us to develop a political-economy-ecology lens for interpreting our cases (cf. Table 2 below). 290 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Ta bl e 2. P ol iti ca l-e co no m y- ec ol og y vi ew s on o ur fo ur c as e st ud ie s (c f. VE T Af ric a 4. 0 Co lle ct iv e 20 23 fo r fu rt he r de ta ils o n th e ca se s) . Ca se S tu dy F oc us Ev id en ce o f p ol iti ca l-e co no m y- ec ol og y en ga ge m en t in V ET s et tin g W A TE R sy st em t ra ns it io ns Al ic e, E as te rn C ap e, S ou th A fr ic a: M ul ti- ac to rs in a lo ca l f oo d ec on om y, w ith lo ca l a gr ic ul tu ra l c ol le ge , s ee ki ng w ay s of in te gr at in g w at er h ar ve st in g an d se ed s ec ur ity in to d ev el op m en t of s m al lh ol de r fa rm in g fo od so ve re ig nt y pr og ra m m es , a nd t ra in in g off er ed b y th e co lle ge . Ty pe o f c ha ng e: T he re is in te nt fr om th os e at th e he ar t o f t he V ET s ys te m s in te rv en tio ns to b e tr an sf or m at iv e bu t th is is h am pe re d by t he lo ng h is to rie s of r ef or m is t ch an ge s in ce t he fa ll of a pa rt he id . C ha ng es r em ai n qu ite lo ca lis ed . Po lit ic al -e co no m y- ec ol og y fr am in g/ s: T he re is s til l a d om in an t di sc ou rs e of s ki lls fo r em pl oy m en t/ em pl oy ab ili ty a nd th e w id er p ro du ct iv is t a cc ou nt in k ey in st itu tio ns w ho te nd to fo cu s m or e on t he la rg e sc al e fa rm in g sy st em s an d la rg e sc al e irr ig at io n, a lth ou gh t he re ar e po ck et s of w or k th at is e m ph as is in g th e en vi ro nm en t an d su st ai na bl e liv el ih oo ds , m ai nl y dr iv en b y N G O s an d ac tiv is t gr ou ps . T he re is a g ap b et w ee n th e fo rm al a nd la rg e sc al e an d th e sm al l a nd in fo rm al , b et w ee n pr om ot in g th e un su st ai na bl e (e .g . l ar ge s ca le irr ig at io n in a w at er s ca rc e co nt ex t) a nd m or e su st ai na bl e (m or e re le va nt w at er s ol ut io ns fo r sm al l h ol de r fa rm er s) . Th er e ar e po ck et s in w hi ch p eo pl e ar e se ek in g ou t ‘re al u to pi as ’/a lte rn at iv e ec on om ie s w hi ch in cl ud e ba rt er in g, s ee d sa vi ng in lo ca l e co no m ic c on te xt s, a s w el l a s ac ce ss to m ar ke ts (t he re ar e al so s om e em er ge nt m ar ke ts in te re st ed in s us ta in ab le /o rg an ic p ro du ct s) . H ow ev er , lim ita tio ns a re c au se d by t he d om in an ce o f f oo d m ar ke ts b y su pe rm ar ke t ch ai ns a nd ag rib us in es se s, a nd d om in an t lo gi cs o f t he V ET s ys te m . Ac ro ss a ll sc al es a nd fo rm s of a gr ic ul tu re t he g ro w in g im pa ct o f c lim at e cr is is , w at er s ho rt ag e an d la nd d eg ra da tio n ar e ev id en t, th ou gh n ec es sa ril y m or e co nc en tr at ed in s m al l s ca le se tt in gs g iv en t he lo ng t er m e ffe ct s of c ol on ia l l an d ap pr op ria tio n. V ET tr aj ec to ry a nd o ri en ta ti on : W hi ls t t he lo ca l p ub lic V ET c ol le ge is p oo rly a rt ic ul at ed to th e ne tw or k, th er e is p ar tic ip at io n fr om a p ub lic A gr ic ul tu ra l T ra in in g In st itu te , l oc al u ni ve rs iti es , N G O s an d co m m un ity g ro up s, a nd t he L oc al E co no m ic D ev el op m en t offi ce o f t he M un ic ip al ity . I n th is , a tt en tio n is b ei ng g iv en to a dv an ci ng th e sm al l s ca le fa rm in g ec on om y, an d su pp or tin g th ei r ex pa ns io n in t he lo ca l e co no m y. In de ed t hi s su pp or t to t he in fo rm al ec on om y by m ul ti- ac to r gr ou ps , i s pr od uc in g na rr at iv es , t ra je ct or ie s an d VE T le ar ni ng ne tw or ks t ha t ar e pr ov id in g a so ur ce o f i nn ov at io n in to t he fo rm al A gr ic ul tu ra l T ra in in g In st itu te c ur ric ul um , w hi ch is b ec om in g m or e or ie nt ed t ow ar ds s m al lh ol de r fa rm er s an d su st ai na bi lit y- or ie nt ed fa rm in g pr ac tic es (e .g . w at er h ar ve st in g, s ee d sa vi ng , o rg an ic pr od uc tio n) . I t is a ls o br id gi ng fo rm al a nd in fo rm al V ET e nv iro nm en ts , t hu s be in g m or e in cl us iv e. (C on tin ue d) JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 291 Ta bl e 2. (C on tin ue d) . Ca se S tu dy F oc us Ev id en ce o f p ol iti ca l-e co no m y- ec ol og y en ga ge m en t in V ET s et tin g TR AN SP OR T (e sp ec ia lly m ar iti m e) D ur ba n an d Ri ch ar ds B ay , K w aZ ul u N at al , S ou th A fr ic a: M ul tip le m ul ti- ac to r ne tw or ks w ith li m ite d ov er la p – st at e (n at io na l, pr ov in ci al , m et ro po lit an ) pr oj ec t of in fr as tr uc tu ra l d ev el op m en t w ith s ki lls la rg el y no t pr io rit ise d; p riv at e se ct or - do m in at ed m ar iti m e se ct or w ith h ig h le ve ls of g lo ba l c on ne ct iv ity a nd c or e la rg e fir m s, in cl ud in g in -h ou se t ra in in g pr ov isi on c on ce rn ed w ith m ai nt ai ni ng p ro du ct iv ity a nd co m pe tit iv en es s; pu bl ic V ET c ol le ge s ys te m in cl ud in g ne w s ec to ra l c en tr e of e xc el le nc e in Ri ch ar ds B ay s ee ki ng t o su pp or t en tr y in to t he s ec to r fo r Af ric an s tu de nt s. Ty pe o f ch an ge : f oc us ed o n la rg e- sc al e st at e- le d de ve lo pm en t of b ig a ir/ po rt in fr as tr uc tu re an d co nn ec tio ns to th e hi nt er la nd . I t i s fo cu se d on d ee pe ni ng /a cc el er at in g ca rb on in te ns iv e de ve lo pm en t, no t tr an si tio ni ng . Po lit ic al -e co no m y- ec ol og y fr am in g/ s: t hi s is e nt ire ly b as ed in a p ro du ct iv is t vi ew w ith a he av y de pe nd en ce o n ca rb on a nd e xt ra ct iv is t in du st rie s (in c. c oa l, oi l a nd m et al s) . I t is ec on om ic d ev el op m en t t hr ou gh a s ta te -le d m eg ap ro je ct o f i nf ra st ru ct ur al d ev el op m en t. As su ch it is h ig hl y fo rm al s ec to r o rie nt ed . I n ou r c as e, th er e is a tr ad iti on al v ie w o f t he m ar iti m e ec on om y, w hi ch is in t en si on w ith e nv iro nm en ta l c on si de ra tio ns a ro un d th e ha rb ou r an d co as tli ne , e ve n th ou gh t he se a re m ea nt t o be p ar t of t he O pe ra tio n Ph ak is a m an da te , cr ea tin g a co nt ra di ct io n fo r th e in te rv en tio n w hi ch is la rg el y ig no re d. V ET t ra je ct or y an d or ie nt at io n: t he re is a n ex is tin g pr iv at e se ct or in te rm ed ia te s ki lls ec os ys te m , w hi ch is d om in at ed b y la rg e- sc al e m ul tin at io na l fi rm s an d th ei r in -h ou se tr ai ni ng p ro vi si on . I n co nt ra st , p ub lic V ET c ol le ge s in D ur ba n ar e la rg el y m ar gi na l t o th e se ct or al s ki lls fo rm at io n sy st em . O n to p of th is la rg el y en do ge no us p riv at e sk ill s ec os ys te m , th er e ha s be en a n ew n at io na l i ni tia tiv e to e st ab lis h a pu bl ic c en tr e of e xc el le nc e fo r m ar iti m e sk ill s. H ow ev er , t hi s is lo ca te d in th e se co nd ar y po rt o f R ic ha rd s Ba y (1 00 km n or th ), an d la ck s a fo cu s on t ra ns iti on in g to s us ta in ab ili ty . W ith r es pe ct t o th e w id er s ta te -le d in fr as tr uc tu re in iti at iv e, s ki lls a pp ea r la rg el y to b e an a ft er th ou gh t, ev en t ho ug h th e D ep ar tm en t o f H ig he r E du ca tio n an d Tr ai ni ng w as in vo lv ed in th e fo rm ul at io n of th e w id er se t of s uc h sp at ia l i ni tia tiv es . T he p ub lic s ys te m v oc at io na l s ys te m h as a s tr on g fo cu s on in cl us io n (in t er m s of r ac e an d ge nd er ) t ha t re fle ct s a ke y po lit ic al im pe ra tiv e bu t w hi ch is no t t he p rim ar y m ot iv at io n of th e pr iv at e se ct or (t ho ug h it is k ee n to b e se en to b e m ee tin g eq ui ty ta rg et s) . N on et he le ss , t he p ub lic v oc at io na l s ys te m re m ai ns ti gh tly fo cu se d on fo rm al se ct or e m pl oy m en t ra th er t ha n co m m un ity o r in fo rm al s ec to r o pp or tu ni tie s, in s pi te o f t he lim ite d ab so rp tiv e ca pa ci ty o f t he fo rm al s ec to r or t he s ca le o f n ee ds a nd o pp or tu ni tie s in ot he r e co no m ie s. J us t t ra ns iti on in g di sc ou rs es o n tr an sp or t s ys te m s ap pe ar t o be a bs en t i n th is c on te xt , a lo ng w ith a tt en tio n to e nv iro nm en ta l c on ce rn s. (C on tin ue d) 292 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Ta bl e 2. (C on tin ue d) . Ca se S tu dy F oc us Ev id en ce o f p ol iti ca l-e co no m y- ec ol og y en ga ge m en t in V ET s et tin g O IL p ro sp ec tin g an d pr ep ar at io n fo r la rg e- sc al e ex pl oi ta tio n. H oi m a, U ga nd a Co m pl ex w eb o f a ct or s pr ep ar in g fo r a c ar bo n- ba se d tr an sf or m at io n of a re m ot e ru ra l a re a. T hi s in cl ud es m eg a fir m s (b ot h in te rn at io na l o il co m pa ni es a nd th ei r e ng in ee rin g, p ro cu re m en t a nd co ns tr uc tio n co nt ra ct or s) e ng ag ed in t he ir co re a ct iv iti es ; a m aj or m ul ti- do no r sk ill s pr oj ec t tr yi ng t o m ax im ise lo ca l s ki lls c on te nt , a nd a w eb o f l oc al s ki lls p ro vi de rs (s ta te , c hu rc h, N G O fa ci ng r ad ic al c ha ng e to t he ir op er at in g en vi ro nm en ts . Ty pe o f ch an ge : t ra ns fo rm at io na l b ut a lo ng a t ra je ct or y fr om r ur al u nd er de ve lo pm en t to ra pi d an d pr of ou nd o il- ba se d ch an ge , i nc lu di ng r ad ic al c ha ng es t o lo ca l e m pl oy m en t, en vi ro nm en t, ec on om y an d in fr as tr uc tu re . F ro m a n en vi ro nm en ta l p er sp ec tiv e, t hi s tr an sf or m at io n is v er y m uc h in t he w ro ng d ire ct io n. Po lit ic al -e co no m y- ec ol og y fr am in g/ s: d ee pl y em be dd ed in t he c om pl ex p ol iti ca l e co no m y of o il ex tr ac tio n in cl ud in g th e re la tio ns hi p be tw ee n m eg ac or po ra tio ns a nd a n al re ad y au th or ita ria n st at e. A ls o th er e is th e pr es en ce o f a m aj or in te rn at io na l d ev el op m en t p ro je ct th at is s im ul ta ne ou sl y se ek in g to s up po rt p riv at e se ct or d ev el op m en t (a nd in t he B rit is h ca se , i nc re as in g its o w n ex po rt s) , a dd re ss p ov er ty re du ct io n, a nd o ffe r a t l ea st li p se rv ic e to en vi ro nm en ta l c on ce rn s. H ow ev er , e nv iro nm en ta l c on ce rn s cl ea rly a re m ar gi na lis ed b y al l m aj or a ct or s. V ET t ra je ct or y an d or ie nt at io n: t he re a re b ig q ue st io ns w he re t he re is r oo m fo r lo ca l s ki lls th e oi l s ki lls s ys te m . T he U ga nd an g ov er nm en t h as e st ab lis he d a ne w p ub lic s ec to r c en tr e of ex ce lle nc e bu t th is is w ea kl y re la te d to e m pl oy er s, w ho c on tin ue t o dr aw o n in te rn at io na l w or ke rs w ith h ig h le ve ls o f i nd us tr y ex pe rie nc e fo r m is si on c rit ic al r ol es . I t is a ls o po or ly al ig ne d to d on or s an d th ei r n et w or k of p ub lic , c hu rc h an d N G O p ro vi de rs , w hi ch a re m ai nl y fo cu se d do w n th e va lu e ch ai n in a re as t ha t w ill s er vi ce p ro du ct io n or r es po nd t o th e m ul tip lie r e ffe ct s o f p ro du ct io n (t ra ns po rt , h os pi ta lit y, c on st ru ct io n [n on -o il] ). H er e th e fo cu s is p rim ar ily o n sk ill s fo r p ov er ty re du ct io n, w ith a s tr on g ge nd er le ns , r efl ec tin g w id er d on or pr io rit ie s ra th er th an th os e of g ov er nm en t o r e m pl oy er s. T he re se ar ch re ve al ed th e in ab ili ty of t he e xi st in g sk ill s pr ov id er s to im ag in e w ha t se gm en ts o f t he n ot -y et a rr iv ed e co no m y th ey c an t ar ge t. In a ll of t hi s th er e is n o m ea ni ng fu l f oc us o n en vi ro nm en ta l s ki lls o r ju st tr an si tio ni ng t o a lo w c ar bo n fu tu re , d es pi te n at io na l c lim at e ch an ge p ol ic ie s. (C on tin ue d) JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 293 Ta bl e 2. (C on tin ue d) . Ca se S tu dy F oc us Ev id en ce o f p ol iti ca l-e co no m y- ec ol og y en ga ge m en t in V ET s et tin g FO O D a nd L IV EL IH O O D S G ul u, U ga nd a Re gi on w he re m aj or in te rn at io na l h um an ita ria n in te re st s ar e w in di ng d ow n in a p os tc on fli ct se tt in gs b ut m an y of t he N G O s (a nd t ho se s ki lle d by t he m ) r em ai n pr es en t an d ps yc ho lo gi ca l eff ec ts o f t he p as t r em ai n. F ar fr om re gi on al m ar ke ts b ut w ith a d yn am ic u ni ve rs ity s ee ki ng to be a d ev el op m en ta l c at al ys t, dr iv en b y a co m m un ity -d ev el op m en t ph ilo so ph y. Ty pe o f ch an ge : t ra ns fo rm at iv e in in te nt b ut a ls o w ith c on ce rn s ab ou t co nt in ue d he al in g fo llo w in g pr ol on ge d ci vi l w ar in cl ud in g m aj or is su es re ga rd in g co ns cr ip tio n of c hi ld s ol di er s, sy st em at ic p ro gr am m e of r ap e, e tc . Po lit ic al -e co no m y- ec ol og y fr am in g/ s: th is is a n ar ea w ith m aj or is su es o f l an d sh or ta ge a nd de gr ad at io n bu t l itt le n on -f oo d sy st em e m pl oy m en t e ve n in th e in fo rm al e co no m y. T he re is a dr iv e by lo ca l a ct or s (e sp ec ia lly t he t ra di tio na l a ut ho rit y an d th e un iv er si ty - t he la tt er ec ho in g ol de r no tio ns o f t he d ev el op m en ta l u ni ve rs ity ) t o pr om ot e su st ai na bl e liv el ih oo ds an d su st ai na bl e ag ric ul tu ra l p ra ct ic es r ed uc in g la nd d eg ra da tio n. G ro w in g nu m be rs o f un iv er si ty g ra du at es a re lo ok in g to e xp lo it hi gh er v al ue n ic he s in th e in fo rm al e co no m y, b ut ar e al so c on tr ib ut in g kn ow le dg e fr om t he u ni ve rs ity t o tr aj ec to rie s su ch a s su st ai na bl e de ve lo pm en t. V ET t ra je ct or y an d or ie nt at io n: P ub lic (a nd c hu rc h- ba se d) V ET p ro vi si on is c ha ra ct er is ed b y ve ry s m al l i ns tit ut io ns w ith li tt le o pp or tu ni ty t o en ga ge w ith in du st ry a nd v er y lim ite d ca pa ci ty fo r tr an sf or m at io n. T o th es e ca n be a dd ed a g ro w in g nu m be r of in no va tiv e pr od uc er -t ra in er s in t he in fo rm al s ec to r, of te n w ith s up po rt fr om t he u ni ve rs ity . T he re is a fo cu s on n ew fo od n ic he s in cl ud in g in o rg an ic s, a c irc ul ar e co no m y in p la st ic s an d m ov in g up t he fa sh io n va lu e ch ai n. H er e liv el ih oo d op po rt un iti es a re c lo se ly in te rt w in ed w ith en vi ro nm en ta l i m pr ov em en ts a nd t ra ns iti on in g w he re t he se a re p os si bl e in t he p os t- co nfl ic t co nt ex t. Th es e ar e al so m ed ia te d by a m ul ti- ac to r ne tw or k of V ET p ro vi de rs in le ar ni ng n et w or ks . 294 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Views on political economy and political ecology (and their connections) Given the general absence of a political ecology interest in VET systems and histories, we turned to the considerable body of work emerging in the social sciences that provides historical and contemporary vantage points on the deep- seated connections that exist between political economy and political ecology (e.g. Bond 2002; Forsyth 2003; Malm 2016; Moore 2016; Scoones 2016; Satgar 2018; and earlier work by; Gorz 1989; Bookchin 1990). For example, Leff (2015, 33) explains that political ecology emerged as ‘a social response to the oblivion of nature by political economy’, with subsequent forms of eco-Marxism unco vering a ‘second contradiction of capital’, namely the ‘self-destruction of the ecological conditions of sustainable production’. This and other work brings political economy into conversation with political ecology. There is an emerging body of political-economy-ecology work, which we think has new implications for VET and how it is shaped and constructed. For example, Burawoy (2013) describes three ‘waves’ of Marxism, those of capital- labour (1795–1914), production-exchange (1914–1973) and production- environment (1973-present). Burawoy argues that there is a need to ‘search out real utopias that can galvanise the collective imagination but also inter rogate them for their potential generalisability’ (Burawoy 2013, 48). Any such generalisation needs to be contingent and co-constructed with those most affected. Importantly, for our argument in this paper (also put forward in our book, VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023), Burawoy insists that this brings the role of civil society into focus, especially its role and contribution towards defending humanity against a growing ecological crisis that emerges from the commodi fication of nature and which takes the form of ‘privatisation of water, land or air’ (cf. also Shiva 1994, and others on the commodification of the commons). The role of civil society can be seen in the diversity of skills system actors in Table 1 in response to the political-economy-ecology challenges, especially in the food and water cases, less so in the oil and transport cases. To this, we add inclusivity of those excluded from mainstream notions of economy, work and VET, since we noted patterns of exclusion (especially large numbers of unemployed youth) in all of our cases (cf. Table 1). Relevant to our approach is Burawoy’s (2013, 47–8) argument that this shift will emerge through the building of what Wright (2010) calls ‘real utopias’: ‘small-scale visions of alternatives such as co-operatives, participatory budgeting, and universal income grants that challenge on the one hand, market tyranny and on the other, state regulation’. Such analysis, Burawoy (2013, 48) argues, should focus on “their conditions of existence, their internal contradictions, and thus their potential dissemination’, offering a means of keeping alive the possibilities of alternative capitalism which he describes as not abolishing markets or states, but which rather ‘subjugates them to the collective self-organisation of society’. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 295 Raworth (2017) applies similar arguments to a rethinking of the economy suggesting that we need to include the home, market, state and the commons as four distinct, but related realms of the economy. VET, in Africa and elsewhere, tends to consider the market only, and to a declining extent over time, the state. Work that serves the commons and home-based or subsistence work for liveli hoods is most often excluded from VET (VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023). We note these forms of work being included in three of our case contexts (oil, water and food cases in Table 1), in each case demanding a wider range of VET providers. From an environmental or commons perspective, the historical-materialist political-economy-ecology work of Martínez‐Alier (1997, 2003, 2013) on ‘envir onmentalism of the poor’ (see also Leff 2015; Scheidel et al. 2018), which explores power relations that emerge from society-environment relations and materially grounded analyses of unsustainable forms of modern rationality, can be helpful for considering contradictory and more complex implications of considering a political-economy-ecology perspective as framing for a transformative and transformational VET (McGrath 2012). This extends the perspective of Burawoy above. Martínez-Alier, Guha, and Leff’s work challenges the notion that environmental interest and action stems from affluent societies and their ‘post-material’ concerns. They draw attention to the significance of historically and structurally constituted ecological distribution conflicts as dri vers of environmental concern. As stated by Tetrault (2017, 12), in the global South, such conflicts prototypically pit subaltern groups (with their allies in civil society) against private companies and governmental actors. The latter promote capital-investment in the expansion of extractive activities, polluting industries, and environmentally destructive mega-development projects; while the former struggle to protect their territory, pro ductive natural resources, recreational spaces, and cultural landscapes, all of which form the material and symbolic basis for sustaining livelihoods, healthy living environ ments, and cultural diversity. [as seen in the oil case particularly in Table 1] Ciccantell and Patten (2016) discuss colonial and neocolonial extractivism through a theory of ‘raw materialism’ which reformulates world systems theory and historical materialism in ways that focus on ‘the contradictory roles of raw materials extraction processing and consumption in shaping the long term evolution of the capitalist world-economy and its constituent national econo mies, as well as the socio-economic and ecological impacts of its evolution’; drawing attention to the ‘multiple roles of raw materials in shaping the past five centuries of the capitalist world economy’ (n.p). They note this is also called ‘new historical materialism’ in attempts to avoid environmental determinism and maintain continuities with classical political economy of Marx and world systems theory (cf. Wallerstein 1974). A similar story emerges in Africa. The independence wave in African countries brought the hope that governments would be more accountable to local 296 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. populations and would end the centuries of foreign domination of African economies and government policies, which also influenced VET (cf. Allais 2022; McGrath et al. 2020). Cheru explains that this hope, represented and championed by some early liberation movement leaders, had the support of workers, trade unionists and the growing radical student movements, as this was also ‘essentially a strategy for more equitable appropriation of the produc tive forces under a democratic system of government’ (Cheru 2016, 1271). There was important progress in this regard, particularly around health, education, and communications infrastructure. However, as Cheru notes, nationalist lea ders felt impelled to continue extractivism due to the need to fund develop ment internally. This had the perverse effect of locking Africa into this model. Ciccantell and Patten (2016) propose a focus on commodity chains (e.g. oil/ coal) and their impacts and implications to social life and living, working and learning including alternatives to the dominance of these commodity chains (cf. Orihuela 2013, on the possibility of unlearning mineral dependence). From a VET perspective, this takes us to emerging discourses on Just Transitions to Sustainability, discussed further below as a new narrative that focuses on commodity chains linked to reframing of energy, food, transport, and water systems and value chains. As will be discussed further below, Just Transitions is a political ecology narrative that seeks to leave no-one behind in addressing environmental and social justice challenges in response to the long durée of the impacts of extraction and ecological degradation that have led to climate change and new risks for societies the world over (e.g. food system, transport, infrastructure development shifts, etc. cf. also Table 1 for these risks emerging in each of our cases). It also drives us to broaden views on VET away from formal provisioning solely to intersections with informal and non-formal vocational education (VET Africa 4.0 Collective 2023). As we note elsewhere, these did form an important part of the emphasis of what we call VET Africa 2.0, but have been marginalised over the past quarter-century. In short, we found from this review of these literatures that reframing political economy to include ecology (i.e. a political-economy-ecology lens) provides new challenges for the foundational narratives that drive VET emerging from this history, especially the now ‘worn’ narrative of human capital theory that serves relatively narrow views of what VET is for, but also the political economy of skills discourse, which ‘left out’ the relation between power, economy, production, and nature, largely turning nature into a ‘resource’ to be mobilised into the productionist narrative (Moore 2016). Importantly, Leff (2015, 33) states ‘political ecology goes beyond the proposal for conservation of nature . . . and policies of environmental management . . . to inquire on the conditions for a sustainable life in the ecological stage of economic and technological hege monic domination.’ It is from this vantage point that we continue the discussion on reframing VET in times of climate change. JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 297 ‘Just transitions’: connecting political-economy-ecology in shaping VET Just transitions is a rapidly emerging political-economy-ecology discourse that connects climate change policy with economic inequality considerations in global attempts to move towards a low carbon future (Newell and Mulvaney 2013). Originating from the labour movement (Young 1998) and with later engagement from the climate justice movement (Wilgosh, Sorman, and Barcena 2022), just transitions discourses have also recently been taken up by global policy structures such as the World Bank, and those involved in socio- technical transitions (e.g. Newell and Mulvaney 2013; Swilling and Annecke 2012; Swilling, Musango, and Wakeford 2016). In general, they seek to fore ground inclusion, distributional, procedural and restorative justice as low car bon initiatives are planned for and implemented. One of the challenges with this discourse, however, is that it assumes that justice results from formalised application of policy intentions via linear top- down reform trajectories (Jasanoff 2018), including into the skills system (Bray, Montero, and Ford 2022). Notwithstanding the importance of good and timely policies to address the climate and inequality challenges of our times, there is also a need to focus on the complexities of realising such policy ambitions. Political ecology raises the need for critical analysis of longer term nature- society relations and power dynamics of these relations (as seen also in the cases in Table 1), and political economy raises the need to interrogate long term structuring of inequalities and power relations associated with labour and work. As stated by Ward (2018), there is need to ‘navigate the fault lines’ in just transitions work, including its principles, processes, and practices, which includes skills development principles, processes, and practices associated with just transitioning ambitions. One of the complex ‘fault lines’ that need to be navigated with a deep concern for justice is the general problem in just transitioning that relates to projections of jobs being lost (e.g. in the coal value chain) which puts commu nities already living precariously at more risk of job losses, income, and liveli hood security. One of the solutions being put forward in the just transitions planning literature is reskilling and upskilling of these workers into more ‘cli mate friendly’ jobs and value chains as articulated for example by the ILO (2015) and the South African Presidential Climate Change Commission (2022). However, it is also recognised that this is not a direct ‘match-up’ process, and what it means in reality is that some will lose jobs while others may gain jobs in new value chains (e.g. renewable energy value chains). Thus, discourses of social protection are also included in this deliberation (PCC 2022). The International Labour Organisation have also become an influential player in shaping the discourse of just transitions, and in 2015, the ILO developed and ratified Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies and Societies for All (ILO 2015), noting that, 298 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. A just transition for all towards an environmentally sustainable economy . . . needs to be well managed and contribute to the goals of decent work for all, social inclusion and the eradication of poverty. However, just transitioning is not just a management issue. Researchers are articulating some of the problematique of just transitions discourses and tra jectories as limited by management trajectories in the here and now. As stated by Cock (2011): A ‘just transition’ could involve demands for shallow change focused on protecting vulnerable workers, or deep change rooted in a vision of dramatically different forms of production and consumption. In this sense the ecological crisis represents an oppor tunity: to not only address the unemployment crisis in our society, but to demand the redistribution of power and resources; to challenge the conventional understanding of economic growth, and to mobilise for an alternative development path. (Cock 2011) As stated in Ward (2018, pg. 8, citing Cock 2018), A shallow just transition emphasises ‘reformist change with green jobs, social protec tion, retraining and consultation’, a position Cock argued is evident in the International Trade Union Confederation and the International Labour Organisation (Cock 2018) . . . . A deep just transformation views the current climate crisis and other environmental issues as a ‘catalysing force for massive transformative change with totally different forms of producing and consuming. . .’. (Cock 2018, 222, our emphasis) A ‘transformative transition’ approach which ‘argues that the current political economic system is incapable of achieving the changes required to deal with the environmental [and social] challenges’ (Goods 2013). Such an approach is ultimately radically reoriented towards economic, social, and environmental justice and points to the deep transformation perspective articulated by Cock (2018, cf. Cock 2019; Ward 2018). Note that the languages shifts also from ‘transition’ to ‘transformation’ flagging a need for deep analysis and shifts in the status quo. Allowing space for emergence from one trajectory to another, Ward (2018) argues that the approach put forward by COSATU in South Africa ‘may be useful, in terms of acknowledging both the need for some short-term contributions to better job opportunities in a “greening” economy through knowledge and skills development BUT with a clear eye on the long-term transformations required’ (18). In our view, this offers important orientation for VET and skills development for just transitioning and would seem to be what is called for in the context of all of our four cases. In other words, there is need to rapidly upscale green skills and skills needed for just transitioning in the shorter term, but in doing this, to conceptualised such skills development programmes within a wider frame of ‘deep transitioning’ or long term transfor mations that are required to adequately address the political-economy-ecology relation which is shaping contemporary employment and societal change land scapes (cf. Rosenberg, Ramsarup, and Lotz-Sisitka 2020). JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 299 Ward recommends that there is a need to explore the principles, processes and practices associated with these shifts via various cases so that as societies we can develop more in-depth understandings of the realities of skills develop ment for just transitioning. Notably, Ward (2018) argues for allowing considera tion of a ‘continuum’, in other words embracing an understanding of emergent social change processes while also arguing for potential radical breaks. He states: These transitions are going to require new knowledge and skills both within existing sectors and occupations and in emerging sectors and occupations. To understand what these ‘skills’ transitions may look like as we learn our way from minimal Just Transitions to transformative Just Transitions, from green resilience to green revolu tions and from instrumental business cases for profit maximisation to transformative business models for sustainable value creation, it will be useful to explore . . . implica tions [in] and for particular cases. (pg. 19, our emphasis) From this, we can consider how we might approach both analysis of, and generative research oriented towards, VET programmes that are engaging with political-economy-ecology concerns. A process-based initial analytical per spective may be useful to consider here and develop further via in-depth case analysis (we demonstrate its potential via a brief, high level review of our four cases below in Table 2). Applying a political-economy-ecology lens to VET: what do our four cases of VET in Africa reveal? As indicated above, part of our research was to reflect on four case studies in Uganda and South Africa that investigate VET provisioning in oil, transport, water, and food (which materially partly defined our cases as shown in Tables 1 and 2). We have offered analytical perspective above from the literature which allows for insight into possible dynamics of a political-ecology-economy lens in VET, and how it also relates to just transitioning discourse which is currently a powerful discourse shaping imperatives for skilling, reskilling and upskilling through VET. We apply this lens to our four cases (at a broad level in Table 2 below), mainly to invite further development and engagement with the frame work, rather than definitive insights. Here, we need to be very honest and humble in seeing our empirical work as a first, but very small, step towards our goal of building a rigorous political-economy-ecology of skills analysis. Table 2 above offers some high level insight into how one might approach the analysis of VET case studies to gain further insight into contemporary VET trajectories when it comes to the integration (or not) of political-ecology- economy into VET systems. It also seeks to show that these developments in societies are not ‘neatly framed’ when it comes to practice, they are often related, contradictory and emerge in and from significant struggle involving 300 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. multiple actors in local contexts, or remain simply absent, despite national and international policies that seek to advance climate change responses, and just transitions. In all cases, there is one or more ‘skills project’ being pursued by different groups of actors. However, sometimes these are in competition, in conflict or simply non-articulated. Equally, they are sometimes at variance with the wider political economy drivers of state or market. Whilst environment is being framed as an important consideration by some in all cases (e.g. the environmental mandate of Operation Phakisa, the concern with land degrada tion and water amongst farming communities), environmental concerns are also frequently marginalised (not operationalised in the VET system for Operation Phakisa, or overshadowed by VET provider biases in agriculture), especially when they run counter to the interests of major economic actors and dynamics (more or less ignored in the case of oil). Yet, there are also multiple examples of counter-hegemonic spaces where skills and societal trans formations are imagined. In our cases, we noticed that multi-actor networks (food and water cases) seemed to be an important VET mechanism for launch ing more transformative skills programmes that take political-economy-ecology relations into account in ways that are also inclusive of those generally left out. The complexities of the skills formation processes in such contexts, reinforces the argument that just transitions should more accurately be described as just transitioning, i.e. in process terms that take account of the complex histories that shape current conditions and trajectories, as well as human agency for change, all of which requires formal, informal, and wider forms of social/expansive learning (reference to be included after review), or VET models that can be more substantively supported by, or framed by, deep transitioning discourses. Jasanoff (2018) notes usefully that one of the limitations in just transitions is methods that connect the is and the ought. Her argument is for a more inclusive approach on where we should be going as a global community, in other words, this should not be left to experts and professionals, but should include com munities, workers, and those affected by the political-ecological concerns of the day. Of interest in our brief analysis in Table 1 above, is that it is in those contexts (water and food) where local actors and activist organisations were working in multi-actor formations with skills system actors that there was ‘movement’ towards transformative approaches to just transitions, with shifts emerging in the VET institutions (i.e. where home and commons were included or were seeking to transform or be included in state and market economies). Here there were shimmerings of political-economy-ecology relations in evi dence as people sought to work towards the ‘real utopia’s’ referred to by Burawoy (2013), with skills development at the core. In the cases where market, and state/mainstream development economies were colluding (oil and trans port), political-economy-ecology movements in VET were not evident, despite policy imperatives that ideally should have been driving shifts towards just transitioning. This insight would need further research, but for JVET readers, JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 301 this alerts us to how we might go about better including just transitioning approaches, ideally within a transformative rather than a reformist orientation into VET systems and research. In raising the question on how VET researchers are engaging the political-economy-ecology debate in their work, we join Jasanoff (2018) who states that adopting more humble approaches to just transitions that allow local voices to emerge, may ‘give ordinary people con fidence that this Earth is their Earth, its future their future and that we are here embarked on a common quest to improve and safeguard our common future’ (pg. 14, emphasis in original). Conclusion The political economy of skills literature has done much to illuminate the complex processes of skills formation and their location within wider political economy processes. But the approach reflects a wider weakness in political economy thinking: that growth, development and industrialisation are desirable and the focus should be on equitable access to their benefits, not on the unequal distribution of the burden of their ecological impact. The growing but much overdue attention given to climate crisis and environmental degrada tion, and thus the common good and common future of life on our planet, leads to an emerging realisation that the ecological dimension of economic activity cannot be ignored. This means that our debates about skills formation too must take account of the ecological domain. Hence, we argue for a new political-economy-ecology of skills approach. Like any major shift in the field, this approach will need a number of years to mature. What we offer here is an initial argument for movement in that direction, coupled with some early suggestions of potentially fruitful directions. One important move we make in this paper is to call for a reconceptualisation of the focus of VET, that is transformative within a political-ecological-economy focus on the future. This requires moving beyond dominant foci on mining, manufacturing and motors, and includes a re-orientation of these sectors, while also including land, renewable energy, sustainable food, and water-based sec tors. We argue that a broader vision of what VET is and is for will not be easy but it is urgent and vital. Towards the end of the paper, we offer an analytical tool that, we believe, gives some useful insights into how such an approach can be built. As we note above, the intention here is not to argue definitively for certain propositions but to start a more concrete methodological and conceptual debate about how we build an account of VET in a world of climate change and persistent inequality. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). 302 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. Funding FOOTNOTE (to be placed correctly) This article derives from research funded by ESRC/GCRF – award number ES/S004246/1. The research was also supported by funds in the DSI/NRF SARChI Chair: Global Change and Social Learning Systems. Grant UID 98767. ORCID Heila Lotz-Sisitka http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5193-9881 Simon McGrath http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2312-5378 Presha Ramsarup http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6747-3094 References Allais, S. 2022. “Skills for Industrialisation in Sub-Saharan African Countries.” Journal of Vocational Education and Training 74 (3): 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820. 2020.1782455 . Anderson, D. 2008. “Productivism, Vocational and Professional Education, and the Ecological Question.” Vocations and Learning 1 (2): 105–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008- 9007-0 . Bond, P., ed. 2002. Unsustainable South Africa. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu Natal Press. Bookchin, M. 1990. The Philosophy of Social Ecology. Montreal: Black Rose. Bray, R., A. M. Montero, and R. Ford. 2022. “Skills deployment for a ‘just’net zero energy transition.” Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 42:395–410. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eist.2022.02.002 . Burawoy, M. 2013. “Marxism After Polanyi.” In Marxisms in the 21st Century, edited by M. Williams and V. Satgar, 34–52. Johannesburg: Wits University Press. Busemeyer, M., and T. Iverson. 2014. “The Political Economy of Skills and Inequality.” Socio- Economic Review 12 (2): 241–243. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwu013 . Cedefop. 2012. Green Skills and Environmental Awareness in Vocational Education and Training. Luxembourg: European Union. Cheru, F. 2016. “Developing Countries and the Right to Development.” Third World Quarterly 37 (7): 1268–1283. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1154439 . Ciccantell, P., and D. Patten. 2016. “The New Extractivism, Raw Materialism and Twenty-First Century Mining in Latin America.” In Mining in Latin America, edited by K. Deonandan and M. Dougherty, 45–62. New York: Routledge. Cock, J. 2011. “Labour’s Response to Climate Change.” Global Labour Journal 2 (3): 235–242. https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v2i3.1109 . Cock, J. 2018. “The Climate Crisis and a ‘Just transition’ in South Africa: An Eco-Feminist- Socialist Perspective.” In The Climate Crisis: South African and Global Democratic Eco- Socialist Alternatives, edited by V. Satgar, 210–230. Johannesburg: Wits University Press. Cock, J. 2019. “Resistance to Coal Inequalities and the Possibilities of a Just Transition in South Africa.” Development Southern Africa 36 (6): 860–873. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X. 2019.1660859 . Coll, R., N. Taylor, and S. Nathan. 2003. “Using Work-Based Learning to Develop Education for Sustainability.” Journal of Vocational Education and Training 55 (2): 169–182. https://doi. org/10.1080/13636820300200224 . JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 303 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2020.1782455 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2020.1782455 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008-9007-0 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008-9007-0 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2022.02.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2022.02.002 https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwu013 https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1154439 https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v2i3.1109 https://doi.org/10.15173/glj.v2i3.1109 https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2019.1660859 https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2019.1660859 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820300200224 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820300200224 Dietsche, E. 2020. “Jobs, Skills and the Extractive Industries: A Review and Situation Analysis.” Mineral Economics 33 (3): 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00219-2 . Evans, C., and D. Stroud. 2016. “Greening Steel Work.” Journal of Education & Work 29 (3): 263–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2014.907487 . Fien, J., R. Maclean, and M.-G. Park, eds. 2008. Work, Learning and Sustainable Development. Dordrecht: Springer. Forsyth, T. 2003. Critical Political Ecology. London: Routledge. Goods, C. 2013, November. “A Just Transition to a Green Economy: Evaluating the Response of Australian Unions.” Australian Bulletin of Labor. 39 (2): 13–33. https://espace.curtin.edu.au/ han-dle/20.500.11937/19237 . Gorz, A. 1989. Critique of Economic Reason. London: Verso. Guha, R., and J. Martínez-Alier. 2013. Varieties of Environmentalism. London: Routledge. ILO. 2015. Guidelines for a Just Transition Towards Environmentally Sustainable Economies and Societies for All. Geneva: International Labour Organisation. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/ groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_432859.pdf . International Labour Organisation. 2011. Skills for a Greener Future. Geneva: ILO. IPCC. 2021. Sixth Assessment Report. The Physical Science Basis. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ ar6/wg1/ . Jasanoff, S. 2018. “Just Transitions: A Humble Approach to Global Energy Futures.” Energy Research & Social Science 35:11–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.11.025 . Kelly, E., and G. Brown. 2019. “Who are We Educating and What Should They Know? An Assessment of Forestry Education in California.” Journal of Forestry 117 (2): 95–103. https:// doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvy079 . Leff, E. 2015. “Political Ecology: A Latin American Perspective.” Desenvolvimento e Meio Ambiente 35:29–64. https://doi.org/10.5380/dma.v35i0.44381 . Liu, X., Y.-S. Chen, Y. Yang, B. Liu, C.-Y. Ma, G. Craig, and F. Gao. 2020. “Understanding Vocational Accounting students’ Attitudes Towards Sustainable Development.” Journal of Vocational Education and Training 74 (2): 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2020. 1760333 . Lotz-Sisitka, H., V. Pesanayi, L. Sisitka, L. Metelerkamp, G. Chakona, W. van Staden, C. Matambo, et al. 2021. “Amanzi for Food”: A Social Learning Approach to Agricultural Water Knowledge Mediation, Uptake and Use in Smallholder Farming Learning Networks. Research and Development Report No TT 868/21. Pretoria: Water Research Commission. Majumdar, S. 2010. “Greening TVET.” Paper presented in IVETA-CPSC International. Manila, Philippines. Malm, A. 2016. Fossil Capital. London: Verso. Martínez‐Alier, J. 1997. “Environmental Justice (Local and Global).” Capitalism Nature Socialism 8 (1): 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455759709358725 . Martínez-Alier, J. 2003. The Environmentalism of the Poor. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. McGrath, S. 2012. “Vocational Education and Training for Development.” International Journal of Educational Development 32 (5): 623–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.12.001 . McGrath, S., P. Ramsarup, J. Zeelen, V. Wedekind, S. Allais, H. Lotz-Sisitka, D. Monk, G. Openjuru, and J.-A. Russon. 2020. “Vocational Education and Training for African Development.” Journal of Vocational Education and Training 72 (4): 465–487. https://doi. org/10.1080/13636820.2019.1679969 . McGrath, S., and J.-A. Russon. 2023. “Towards Sustainable Vocational Education and Training.” Southern African Journal of Environmental Education 39. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajee.v39i.03 . McGrath, S., and S. Yamada. 2023. “Skills for Development and Vocational Education and Training.” International Journal of Educational Development 102:102853. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102853 . 304 H. LOTZ-SISITKA ET AL. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00219-2 https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2014.907487 https://espace.curtin.edu.au/han-dle/20.500.11937/19237 https://espace.curtin.edu.au/han-dle/20.500.11937/19237 https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_432859.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/@emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_432859.pdf https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.11.025 https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvy079 https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvy079 https://doi.org/10.5380/dma.v35i0.44381 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2020.1760333 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2020.1760333 https://doi.org/10.1080/10455759709358725 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.12.001 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2019.1679969 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2019.1679969 https://doi.org/10.4314/sajee.v39i.03 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102853 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102853 Merino, R. 2020. “The Cynical State: Forging Extractivism, Neoliberalism and Development in Governmental Spaces.” Third World Quarterly 41 (1): 58–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 01436597.2019.1668264 . Ministry of Education and Sports. 2019. Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Policy. Kampala: MoES. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development. 2015. Workforce Skills Development Strategy and Plan for Oil and Gas Sub-Sector in Uganda. Kampala: MEMD. Moore, J., ed. 2016. Anthropocene or Capitalocene?. Oakland: PM Press. Newell, P., and D. Mulvaney. 2013. “The Political Economy of the ‘Just transition’.” The Geographical Journal 179 (2): 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12008 . Ochieng, A., M. Onyango, M. Thokozani, E. Said, T. Leswifi, S. Rwanga, and J. Kesi. 2015. “Water and Wastewater Management in Local Government.” http://cdn.lgseta.co.za/resources/per formance_monitoring_and_reporting_documents/Water%20%20Wastewater% 20Management%20Research%20Report%20II.pdf . OECD. 2011, May. Towards Green Growth. A Summary for Policy Makers. OECD. https://www. oecd.org/greengrowth/48012345.pdf . Orihuela, J. 2013. “How Do “Mineral-States” Learn? Path-Dependence, Networks, and Policy Change in the Development of Economic Institutions.” World Development 43:138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.004 . Pavlova, M. 2018. “Fostering Inclusive, Sustainable Economic Growth and “Green” Skills Development in Learning Cities Through Partnerships.” International Review of Education 64 (3): 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-018-9718-x . Presidential Climate Commission. 2022. A Framework for a Just Transition in South Africa. Pretoria: PCC. https://pccommissionflo.imgix.net/uploads/images/22_PAPER_Framework- for-a-Just-Transition_revised_242.pdf . Ramsarup, P., H. Lotz-Sisitka, and S. McGrath. 2022. “A Laminated, Emergentist View of Skills Ecosystems.” Journal of Critical Realism 21 (5): 571–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430. 2022.2145768 . Ramsarup, P., S. McGrath, and H. Lotz-Sisitka. 2023. “Reframing skills ecosystems for sustain able and just futures.” International Journal of Educational Development 101:102836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102836 . Raworth, K. 2017. Doughnut Economics. London: Random House. Rosenberg, E., P. Ramsarup, and H. Lotz-Sisitka. 2020. Green Skills Research in South Africa. Abingdon: Routledge. Satgar, V., ed. 2018. The Climate Crisis. Johannesburg: Wits University Press. Scheidel, A., L. Temper, F. Demaria, and J. Martínez-Alier. 2018. “Ecological Distribution Conflicts as Forces for Sustainability: An Overview and Conceptual Framework.” Sustainability Science 13 (3): 585–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-017-0519-0 . Scoones, I. 2016. “The Politics of Sustainability and Development.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 41 (1): 293–319. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ -110615-090039 . Shiva, V. 1994. “Conflicts of Global Ecology.” Alternatives 19 (2): 195–207. https://doi.org/10. 1177/030437549401900208 . Soskice, D., and P. Hall. 2001. Varieties of Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spours, K. 2024. ”Transitioning Vocational Education and Training in Africa.” Journal of Vocational Education & Training 72 (06). Steffen, W., P. Crutzen, and J. McNeill. 2007. “The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?” AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 36 (8): 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2 . JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION & TRAINING 305 https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2019.1668264 https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2019.1668264 https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12008 http://cdn.lgseta.co.za/resources/performance_monitoring_and_reporting_documents/Water%2520%2520Wastewater%2520Management%2520Research%2520Report%2520II.pdf http://cdn.lgseta.co.za/resources/performance_monitoring_and_reporting_documents/Water%2520%2520Wastewater%2520Management%2520Research%2520Report%2520II.pdf http://cdn.lgseta.co.za/resources/performance_monitoring_and_reporting_documents/Water%2520%2520Wastewater%2520Management%2520Research%2520Report%2520II.pdf https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/48012345.pdf https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/48012345.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.004 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-018-9718-x https://pccommissionflo.imgix.net/uploads/images/22_PAPER_Framework-for-a-Just-Transition_revised_242.pdf https://pccommissionflo.imgix.net/uploads/images/22_PAPER_Framework-for-a-Just-Transition_revised_242.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2022.2145768 https://doi.org/10.1080/14767430.2022.2145768 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102836 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102836 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-017-0519-0 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-090039 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-090039 https://doi.org/10.1177/030437549401900208 https://doi.org/10.1177/030437549401900208 https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2 Steffen, W., J. Grinevald, P. Crutzen, and J. McNeill. 2011. “The Anthropocene: Conceptual and Historical Perspectives.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1938): 842–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0327 . Swartz, R. 2016. “Industrial Education in Natal.” In Empire and Education in Africa, edited by P. Kallaway and R. Swartz, 53–80. New York: Peter Lang. Swilling, M., and E. Annecke. 2012. Just Transitions: Explorations of Sustainability in an Unfair World. Cape Town: Juta and Company (Pty) Ltd. Swilling, M., J. Musango, and J. Wakeford. 2016. “Developmental States and Sustainability Transitions: Prospects of a Just Transition in South Africa.” Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 18 (5): 650–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908X.2015.1107716 . Tetrault, D. 2017. “Three Forms of Political Ecology.” Ethics and the Environment 22 (2): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.2979/ethicsenviro.22.2.01 . Thelen, K. 2004. How Institutions Evolve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. United Nations Environment Programme. 2011. Towards a Green Economy. Nairobi: UNEP. VET Africa 4.0 Collective. 2023. Transitioning Vocational Education in Africa. Bristol: Bristol University Press. Wallerstein, I. 1974. The Modern World-System. Cambridge, MA: Academic. Ward, M. 2018. “Just Transitions and the Green Economy.” Working Paper. REAL Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. Wedekind, V., J.-A. Russon, P. Ramsarup, D. Monk, L. M