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Box 488 Kampala E-mail:fountain@starcom.co.ug Website:www.fountainpublishers.co.ug Distributed in Europe, North America and Australia by African Books Collective Ltd (ABC), Unit 13, Kings Meadow, Ferry Hinksey Road, Oxford OX2 0DP, United Kingdom. Tel: 44(0) 1865-726686, Fax:44(0)1865-793298. E-mail: abc@africanbookscollective.com Website: www.africanbookscollective.com © Makerere University 2006 First published 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented, including copying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN 13: 978-9970-02-592-3 ISBN 10: 9970-02-592-9 iii Contents Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii Editors ............................................................................................................................. vi International Technical Reviewers...................................................................................... vi Contributors .....................................................................................................................vii Preface.............................................................................................................................. xi Part One: Measuring Research Excellence in Computing............................1 1: Heads of Computing Departments in Higher Education Institutions Ddembe Williams and Venansius Baryamureeba........................................................3 Part Two: Computing Research in Higher Education .................................14 2: Towards Enhancing Learning with Information and Communication Technology in Universities Farida Muzaki and Ezra Mugisa.............................................................................15 3: The Doctoral Programme in Computing at Makerere University: Lessons Learned and Future Improvements Venansius Baryamureeba and Ddembe Williams .....................................................26 4: Inter-departmental Staff Transfers in a Multidisciplinaty Research Environment: Towards Transfer Criteria for Academic Staff at Universities in Developing Countries Venansius Baryamureeba and Ddembe Williams ......................................................36 5: Strengthening Research and Capacity Building in Computer Science: Case of the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi Peter Wagacha, Katherine Getao and Bernard Manderick .........................................44 6: Optimising the Potential of Educational Computing Research in Emerging Countries Ronald Bisaso............................................................................................................56 Part Three: Strategic Planning and Quality Assurance in Higher Education ...................................................................................................................63 7: Research Methods for Organisational Studies Shushma Patel, Dilip patel. Huong Tang and Geofrey Elliot.....................................64 iv Part Four: Sustainable Information and Communication Technology Development...............................................................................................................77 8: The Role of ICTs and their Sustainability in Developing Countries Justine Kasigwa, Ddembe Williams and Venansius Baryamureeba ...........................78 9: Income Generation at Public Universities: A Case of the University of Nairobi Enterprises and Services Limited Anthony Rodrigues G. Wainaima and E.W. Mwangi..............................................89 10: Computing Research Challenges and Opportunities with Grid Computing Elisha T. O. Opiyo, Erick Ayienga, Katherine Getao, Bernard Manderick, Okello- Odongo and Ann Nowé ..........................................................................................112 Part Five: Research Approaches in Information Technology Projects....134 11: Foundations and Research Trends in Object-oriented Information Systems Shushma Patel .........................................................................................................135 12: Exploring “Myths and Meanings” in Higher Education Planning Jon Warwick, Gary Bell and Micheal Kennedy ........................................................143 13: Complexity Reduction in the Formative Evaluation Process using the Quizintegrator Elijah I. Omwenga, Christopher Chepken and Bishar Duble ...................................159 Part Six: Gender and Information Technology Development ....................167 14: Access to ICT Higher Education: Reflections on Good Practices in Promoting Gender Equality at Makerere University Aramanzan Madanda and Peace Mutuwa ..............................................................168 15: Design of Engendered Information Society: The Challenges K. R. Santhi and G. Senthil Kumaran ....................................................................180 Part Seven: Software Architecture and Web-based Systems........................198 16: Affordable E-governance Using Free and Open Source Software Rehema Baguma ......................................................................................................199 v 17: Automatic Construction of a Kiswahili Corpus from the World Wide Web Katherine Getao and Evans Miriti ..........................................................................209 18: Towards Excellence in Internet Security Research for Developing Countries Ibrahim Kaliisa and Martijn Oostdijk ....................................................................220 19: A Dynamic Framework for the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in the Cyberspace Jennifer S . Angyeyo, Venansius Baryamureeba and Peter Jehopio ...........................228 Part Eight: Information and Communications Technology Policies and E-governance in Developing Countries ...........................................................246 20: Sub-regional ICT Policy: Case of EAC Headquarters and Autonomous Institutions Anthony J. Rodrigues and Joseph Muliaro Wafula ...................................................247 Appendix : The President of The Republic of Uganda’s Opening Speech 9 August 2005 His Excelelence Yoweri Kaguta Museveni .................................................267 Glossary .........................................................................................................................270 Index ............................................................................................................................289 vi Editors Dr Ddembe Williams Dr Ddembe Williams is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Makerere University. He was formerly at London South Bank University as a Senior Lecturer in Decision Sciences and Course Director MSc Decision Sciences and MSc Information Systems Management. Ddembe’s practical and professional work in research, teaching and consultancy focuses on applied computing, mainlyICTs requirements engineering, process analysis, problem structuring and model-based decision support systems. In terms of international projects, he has also worked on large and complex systems engineering projects, including the London underground railway requirements project, and recently on measuring computing research excellence and vitality in developing countries. Dr Ddembe Williams has an MSc in Advanced Information Technology Management and a PhD in Computer Science/System Dynamics from London South Bank University. Dr Venansius Baryamureeba Dr Baryamureeba has managed and undertaken research on several projects in the domain of ICT for Development. The most recent one is Local Governance and ICTs Research Network for Africa (LOG-IN Africa), an Africa-wide project funded by International Development Research Centre (IDRC). He is a researcher, consultant and an academic in the area of ICT Policy, Information Systems; he has also done research in the domain of Computer Science. Dr Venansius Baryamureeba holds a PhD in Computer Science, an MSc in Computer Science, postgraduate diplomas in Economic Modelling, Mathematical Modelling, post graduate certificates in Public Relations, Administration, and in Business Management, and a BSc (Hons), among other qualifications. Dr Venansius Baryamureeba is currently serving as Dean, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Makerere University. International Technical Reviewers The following distinguished researchers participated on the technical committee to review the book chapters presented in this volume: Professor Anthony Rodrigues, University of Nairobi, Kenya Dr Shushma Patel, London South Bank University, UK Dr Patrick Ogao, University of Groningen, The Netherlands Professor Migga Kizza, University of Tennessee, USA Dr Ezra Mugisa, University of West Indies, Jamaica Professor Dilip Patel, London South Bank University, UK Dr Ddembe Williams, London South Bank University, UK Dr Venansius Baryamureeba, Makerere University, Uganda vii Contributors Bernard Manderick is a Professor at the Vrije Universiteit, Brussels. He heads the Computation Models (COMO) Research Lab, Computer Science Department. His interests include Machine Learning, Evolutionary Computation and Game Theory. He is widely published. Peter W. Wagacha is a Lecturer and Researcher at the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. His main interests are Machine Learning, Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Mobile Telephony. Dr Wagacha is currently researching on local languages and the application of Machine Learning in NLP. Ronald Bisaso is an Assistant Lecturer and facilitator of the UNESCO – IICBA Master of Education in Information and Communication Technology degree in the Department of Higher Education, Makerere University. His research interests include Information and Communication Technology in Education, especially Information Technology in Educational Management. Shushma Patel is a principal lecturer in the Faculty of Business, Computing and Information Management at London South Bank University. Her research interests include knowledge management and organisational decision-making. Dr Shushma Patel is on the editorial board of two international journals: The International Journal of Cognitive Informatics and Natural Intelligence (IJCiNi) and The International Journal of Computing and ICT Research. She has worked on a number of research projects funded by the European Union, DTI and industry. Dilip Patel holds the chair of Information Systems and is the head of the Centre for Information Management and E-Business, which consist of four research groups: E-Business and The Digital Society, Health Informatics, Information Management and Modelling and Knowledge Based Systems. Professor Dilip Patel is currently on the editorial board for two international journals: The International Journal of Cognitive Informatics and Natural Intelligence (IJCiNi) and the International Journal of Information Technology and Web Engineering. He is also Editor-in-Chief of The International Journal of Computing and ICT Research. Huong Tang was recently awarded her PhD in the area of organisational studies. Dr Huong Tang also completed her undergraduate studies in Business Information Technology at London South Bank University. Geoffrey Elliot is the Pro-Dean in the Faculty of Business, Computing and Information Management at London South Bank University. He is author of the successful books: ‘Global Business Information Technology’ and ‘Mobile-Commerce and Wireless Computing Systems’. Professor Elliot has published widely in the areas of mobile technology, business information technology, information systems and curriculum development. Anthony J. Rodrigues is a Professor of Computer Science at the the University of Nairobi’s School of Computing and Informatics. His area of research interest is viii Information Systems and Scientific Computing. He is also involved in Institutional Development. Gituro Wainaina is the Business Development Manager at University of Nairobi Enterprises and Services Ltd. He has a PhD in Educational Economics and has worked at the University of Nairobi as a Senior Lecturer and also at the World Bank and CARE International. Eva Mwangi is a tutorial fellow at the University of Nairobi’s School of Computing and Informatics. She graduated from the same institution with a Bsc in Computer Science in March, 2005. Elisha T. O. Opiyo is a member of academic staff at the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. His interests include artificial intelligence and the application of multi-agent sytems in scheduling in dynamic environments. Eric Ayinga is a member of academic staff at the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. His interests include artificial intelligence and quality of service assurance in grid computing networks. Katherine Getao is a Senior Lecturer and the Director of the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. Her interests include artificial intelligence and natural language applications and Computational Linguistics for Bantu languages. Dr Getao supervises a number of undergraduate and postgraduate students. William Okello-Odongo is a senior member of academic staff at the School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. Dr Okello-Odongo’s interests include distributed systems and high performance computing. Bernard Manderick is the Direcrtor of then Computational and Modelling Laboratoy (COMO), Free University of Brussels, Belgium. Professor Manderick’s interests include artificial intelligence, machine learning and evolutionay computational modelling. Ann Nowé is Deputy Direcrtor of the Computational and Modelling Laboratoy (COMO), Free University of Brussels, Belgium. Professor Nowé’s interests include artificial intelligence, machine learning and multi-agent systems. Jon Warwick has 20 years’ experience of higher education encompassing lecturing, research and management. His research interests include management science, systems modelling and system dynamics and he is currently Professor of Educational Development in the Mathematical Sciences at London South Bank University. Michael Kennedy is the Head of Department of Accounting and Finance at London South Bank University. He specialises in corporate planning, financial management and investment appraisal and has research interests in the application of systems dynamics to investment appraisal of information systems. Gary Bell is a Research Fellow at London South Bank University. He is developing and applying the Holon Framework for software project and higher education planning. This work builds on his software cost estimation research at City University, London, where he was also formerly working on quantitative methods. He has published widely on the Holon Framework, software process improvement, algorithmic cost modelling and systems dynamics. ix Dr Elijah I. Omwenga is a Computer Science lecturer at the University of Nairobi, School of Computing and Informatics. Dr Omwenga has to his credit a portfolio of e-leaning products and models that are being used within the region and beyond. He is actively engaged in e-learning research and is a seasoned software engineer with over 15 years’ experience in software design and development; ICT for science and engineering education consultancy; and curriculum design and implementation. Mr Christopher Chepken is a computer science graduate and is currently enrolled for a master’s course in applied computing. He is a tutorial fellow at the School of Computing and Informatics and has a bias towards artificial intelligence research. He is an experienced software developer with a wealth of experience in web-based applications. Mr. Bishar Duble is an e-learning technologist at the Centre for Information and Communication Technology of the University of Nairobi. He is currently the administrator of the in-house developed electronic learning environment system – http: //wedusoft.org. He has a bias towards distributed systems and has a knack for PHP programming using the MVC approach. Aramanzan Madanda, has a BA with Ed, History and Economics, a postgraduate diploma in Computer Science, an MA in Women Studies, and is a PhD student (Makerere University). He is an assistant lecturer in the Department of Women and Gender Studies, Makerere University. He is currently the Coordinator of the ICT Programme in the Department of Women and Gender Studies. Peace Mutuwa has Bachelor of Library and Information Science, a postgraduate diploma in Computer Science and is completing an MSC in Computer Science (Makerere University). She is a CISCO Academy Instructor and Systems Administrator in the Department of Women and Gender Studies, Makerere University. Evans Miriti is a tutorial fellow at the Institute of Computer Science at the University of Nairobi. He is currently pursuing his master’s degree in Applied Computer Science in the same institution. He is specialising in natural language processing. Ibrahim Kaliisa is a PhD student in the Security of Systems (SoS) group at the Nijmegen Institute of Information and Computing Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. His current research focuses on Internet security, trust management, privacy and identity management systems. Martijn Oostdijk is an assistant professor in the Security of Systems (SoS) group at the Nijmegen Institute of Information and Computing Sciences. His current work focuses on information security and program correctness. Santhi K.R. headed the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering in The Indian Engineering College at Tirunelveli District in South India for 5 years. She has done two master’s degree in Microwave and Optical Engineering and in Computer Science Engineering at Madurai Kamaraj University and Manonmaniam Sundaranar University respectively. Currently she is working as the Manager of the African Virtual University Learning Centre at KIST. She coordinates the various distance learning degree and diploma programmes of RMIT and Curtin Universities of Australia. She is x also a senior lecturer in Computer Engineering and IT at KIST, Kigali, Rwanda. She has published over 14 papers in international journals and has attended many international conferences. G.Senthil Kumaran was senior lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering in‘The Indian Engineering College for nearly 2 years before he was promoted to principal of SA Raja’s Polytechnic College in Tirunelveli District in South India, which position he held for 6 years. He has done a master’s degree in Structural Engineering at Annamalai University. He has been a senior lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering and Technology KIST, Rwanda, since 2000. He has published over 11 papers in international journals and attended the World Engineers Convention’ in China in the year 2004. xi Preface Measuring computing excellence and vitality has become an important approach to understanding sustainable information and communication technology (ICT) for societal transformation and development around the world. In particular, developing countries are being encouraged to invest in ICT infrastructure so that they might experience the expected future social and economic benefits. This book is aimed at developing an integrated framework for measuring sustainable research excellence and vitality in computer science, in Uganda and the immediate African regions. Improving the sustainability and vitality of research capacity has become an important problem in information communication and technology (ICT), and more specifically computing research in the higher education setting for both developed and developing countries. There is little research on the factors that influence research excellence and vitality in computer science. xii Measuring Research Excellence and Vitality in Computing Sustainable development was first proposed in the late 1980s as a theory and concept of development. To many proponents of this theory, it provided an alternative but holistic vision of their future nation-states. The World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as the development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generations. Although this concept was thought at first to be a developmental issue only, today it has become an absolute necessity in every field, including computer science. After all, the process of bringing sustainability awareness to different cultures and nations depends on excellence in teaching and research in higher education. This leads to improvements in the quality of life while at the same time creating wealth in nation-states. Higher education institutions have an important role to play through teaching and research in helping to bring about sustainable development theories in supporting communities to improve their livelihoods. In computer science, the concept of sustainable development is viewed in terms of the way teaching and research are interdependent in an effort to solve problems through efficient and effective design, implementation and improvement of existing systems or solutions relevant to real-world problems in improving the quality of life or creating wealth in nation-states. The above concept means that research-based teaching in computing must address the design tasks faced by practitioners. At the same time these real-world problems must be properly conceptualised and represented and appropriate techniques used in their construction. For computer scientists to accomplish these tasks it means that they must constantly build, evaluate, theorise and justify the same theories, models, methods and artefacts in the research process. This further means that for computer science artefacts to support sustainable development must be conceptualised as ‘dynamic’ – constantly evolving – rather than as a static entity that is complete at a point in time. Evaluating computer science /information technology artefacts provides an opportunity to determine whether the subject has made any progress. How well progress has improved in turn can be evaluated by the development of metrics and the measurement of artefacts according to those metrics. Some researchers have concluded that the lack of metrics and failure to measure artefact performance according to established criteria result in an inability to effectively research efforts. For higher education institutions to effectively conduct evaluate their own cumulative artefacts, funding from governments and other funding bodies must continue to sustain capacity development in terms of teaching, research and extension work. The Objectives of This Book This book contains the edited proceedings of the first international conference on sustainable ICT capacity in developing countries, with the theme ‘Measuring Sustainable Research Excellence and Vitality, held 9-12 August 2005 (SREC’05). The objective of this series of annual conferences is to promote international cooperation in ICT research excellence and vitality among researchers, academics, and ICT development practitioners by creating a greater understanding of the need for sustainable ICT capacity issues in developing countries, and by sharing current xiii research, through academic and industrial experiences. SREC’05 attracted papers on a wide range of topics and from many countries. Who Should Use This Book? The book is aimed at researchers, academics, ICT managers and policy developers. It is structured around topics that are relevant to developing countries. It has text emphasis, illustrations and an effective glossary of the terms frequently used in ICT research and practice. Libraries, universities, developing countries, research organisations, government ICT regulators, development organisations, ICT companies, NGOs in development, and telecommunication companies will find this book valuable to their work. Distinctive Features To reinforce learning and easy reading, the book contains a number of tables, diagrams, text boxes and other illustrations. The twenty-two chapters covered in this book provide a broad spectrum of key topics of practical experience and research in computing in developing countries. These chapters are organised in eight sections: Part One: Measuring Research Excellence in Computing Part Two: Computing Research in Higher Education Part Three: Strategic Planning and Quality Assurance in Higher Education Part Four: Sustainable Information and Communications Technology Development Part Five: Research Approaches in Information Technology Part Six: Gender Information and Communications Technology Development Part VII. Software Architecture and Web-based Systems Part VIII. Information and Communications Technology Policies in Developing Countries The book also provides a unique review of key terms used in computing and ICT research in the form of a glossary. An index has also been provided to enable quick search of key words. How to Use This Book Very few journals or books cover topical areas of research in the sustainable development of ICT in developing countries. Neither these journals nor books explore excellence and vitality of ICTs for sustainable development. The book also can be used specifically to support the learning and teaching of computing and related ICT research subjects, including final-year BSc Information Technology, MSc Advanced Information Technology, MSc ICT Policy and Regulation, and as a key reference text for ICT research. xiv Acknowledgements We are grateful to the contributors to this book which contains the edited papers containing the proceedings of the first international conference on sustainable ICT capacity in developing countries, with the theme ‘Measuring Sustainable Research Excellence and Vitality’ (SREC’05), held on 9-12 August 2005, organised by the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Makerere University, Uganda. The editors would like to thank the School of Graduate Studies, Makerere for the financial support it provide to produce this volume. These book chapters are copyrighted in terms of papers. Every effort has been made to acknowledge the owners of other copyright material. However, copyrights of papers remain with the individual authors of chapters. Please note that these book chapters may not be reproduced, transmitted or stored electronically without the express permission of the copyright owners. We are grateful to the reviewers for the excellent job they did in providing superb comments to individual authors to improve their papers which are presented in this volume. The editors would also like to thank Linda Wandira and Hassan Ssozi for their contribution towards ensuring that the book is completed. Dr Ddembe W. Williams Dr Venansius Baryamureeba Makerere University February 2006 PA R T O N E M e a s u r i n g R e s e a r c h E x c e l l e n c e i n C o m p u t i n g 3 1 An Investigation of Heads of Computing Departments in Higher Education Ddembe Williams and Venansius Baryamureeba Over twenty-five computing departments have been established in East Africa since 1970. Most of these were established from 1985. The purpose of this research was to survey the current research activity and the level of contributions of these departments in terms of computing excellence. Notwithstanding the rapid advances in computing research and Information and Communication Technology (ICT), a growing gap indicates that higher education institutions in developing countries still lag behind. Two potential causes of this lag is lack of academic research networks between developed and developing countries, higher education institutions and lack of sustainable research strategies among computing departments in developing countries. A survey finds that developing a framework for measuring computing research excellence and vitality in developing countries might help research collaboration and networking with business organisations and government funding agencies that can sustain computing research excellence. However, the survey finds that the heads of computing departments do not view key computing sustainable strategies the same way. Williams and Baryamureeba argue that this difference in sustainable computing strategies in developing countries is a possible source of lag behind their counterparts in developing countries. Introduction The measurement of research excellence and vitality within academic disciplines, and computing in particular, has become an important area of research and professional practice. In computing, the concept of sustainable development is viewed as the way in which teaching and research are interdependent in an effort to solve problems through efficient and effective design, implementation and improvement of existing systems or solutions relevant to real-world problems. These solutions are aimed at improving the quality of life or creating wealth in nation-states. The above concept means that research-based teaching in Computing (Computer Science, Computing Engineering and Applied Computing) must address the design tasks faced by practitioners. These real problems must be properly conceptualised, represented and appropriate techniques used in their construction (March and Smith, 1995). For computer scientists to accomplish these tasks means that they must constantly build, evaluate, theorise and justify the same theories, models, methods and artefacts in the research process. This further means that for computing artifacts to support sustainable development they must be conceptualised as ‘dynamic’, constantly evolving, rather than as a static entity that is complete at a point in time (March and Smith, 1995). Evaluating computer science 4 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality /information technology artefacts provides an opportunity to determine whether the subject has made any progress. How well progress has improved in turn can be evaluated by measurement of artefacts according to defined metrics. March and Smith (1995) conclude that “lack of metrics and failure to measure performance according to established criteria result in an inability to effectively measure research efforts” (p. 258). For higher education institutions to effectively evaluate their own cumulative artefacts, funding from governments and other funding bodies must continue to sustain capacity development in terms of teaching, research and professional work. The rest of this chapter, which presents an analysis of a pilot survey of four university computing departments, was first performed to formulate a research model and an experimental survey instrument. The demographic characteristics of four departments located in three countries are discussed. The research scope and research capacities are also described. Finally, the wide range of departmental activities, including research publications, seminars, workshops, PhD research programmes and current research themes, are discussed in detail. Related Research Computing research critically contributes to the creation of wealth, health and well- being and underpins numerable developments that enhance our quality of life. The Royal Academy of Engineering highlights that “... though the contribution of computer engineering to our quality of life may often be drastically underestimated, computer engineering enables us to surf the Internet, use mobile phones, manage transport networks and systems of trading in goods and finance besides other disciplines” (RAOE, 2003). In their further analysis, the Academy categorised computing research as the generator of a bank of knowledge and information that feeds future computing development. In other words, computing research creates the understanding and insight required for design and development of new computing systems. It is therefore axiomatic that a framework for sustainable research capacity in computing be defined, implemented and integrated in national research strategies, bearing in mind that research is a continuous and interactive process whereby any new information is fed back to the appropriate stage of design or development in order to refine the output. Although research excellence is based on a large number of stakeholders, expertise and funding resources, research collaboration, institutional cooperation/networking and coordination are vital to its sustainability (UNU Monitor, 2003). Computing research requires large capital investments, and thus regional coordination among computing departments is vital for sharing resources such as infrastructure and human expertise that aids good research performance focused on stakeholders’ (students, companies, investors, the community, government and financial analysts) satisfaction. Collaboration According to the UNU Monitor (2003), networking is a relatively new programmatic and pragmatic concept based on the voluntary alliances of universities or research institutes who understand that their own autonomy and independence will best be served Part 1: Measuring Research Excellence in Computing 5 by working together (UNU Monitor 2003). There is a need for integration through collaborative networks, especially in the field of computing and research. There is need to establish extensive research networks, with institutions around the globe. By sharing knowledge and research data, departments are able to achieve our goals faster and more efficiently. According to Bozeman et al. (2004) a wide variety of factors, including inter-institutional structures, formal and informal research networks, research alliances and covenants, arrangements for sharing expensive or scarce scientific resources and equipment, govern collaboration choices (Bozeman et al, 2004). The concept itself has some strengths and weakness. Bozeman et al, (2004) points out the key advantages as a measure of collaboration, including its verifiability, stability over time, data availability and ease of measurement. But they also note that co-authorship is not a more partial indicator of collaboration, for instance Hagstrom (1965) found evidence that some publications listed authors for purely social reasons. Sometimes a researcher may be listed as a co-author simply by virtue of providing material or performing a routine assay (Bozeman et al.,2004). Funding In order for research to be geared towards sustainability and excellence, it is important that funding of the research be given high priority and consideration. Most computing departments in East Africa are not in themselves self-sustaining as far as funding research projects is concerned. This means that the lack or inadequency of funds has made it very difficult for them to realise their goals of aiming towards sustainability and excellence. In this section we shall discuss the factors that have been great obstacles to funding and also suggest possible courses of action. Many computing departments have received little or no funding at all over the past years. According to the UNU Monitor financing of institutions has been difficult in most countries during the last ten years. Future prospects are predicted not to be any rosier (UNU Monitor, 2003). This could be attributed to the politically motivated and donor- driven policies of the governments rather than the outcomes of empirical investigations. It is also easy to notice that most government departments charged with implementing policies are by culture not research-oriented. Besides that until the 1990s many higher institutions of learning, for example Makerere University, were more of teaching and undergraduate universities than research centres. Even today research is construed more as an income-supporting and career-promotion avenue activity than a critical inquiry aimed at unearthing the intricacies of phenomena and meeting the needs of society. This probably explains why local computing researchers have not yet formed formidable bodies or professional associations that could lobby the government to recognise the importance of sustainable research excellence and develop a culture of funding it. Besides that, the problem of not knowing has constrained computing research. For, with the exception of those that put up adverts calling for research proposals or pre-proposals, the others are not well publicised. Even when researchers know the addresses of the funding agencies, the latter’s mandate is often narrowed to specific 6 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality research areas. Thus researchers with interests outside the mandate of the funders may not acquire funding. Furthermore, some funding agencies take too long to approve and release research funds. By the time the research funds are released the phenomena the researcher had intended to investigate could have been overtaken by events. This renders the research findings practical and immediate applicability less relevant. There is also a lack of forums that could enable researchers to receive feedback on their capabilities and weaknesses, hence improving on the quality not only of their proposal writing but also of their research products, which could in turn ease their bids for research funds. Owing to this handicap consultancy firms, which are better organised outcompete the individual researchers who may at times be more competent to conduct the researches in question. The majority of the researchers do not keep abreast of current literature, methodologies and analytical modules largely owing to the inability to acquire current literature on a regular basis. Major libraries both in institutions of learning and in government ministries, do not make regular subscriptions to journal publishers, hence literature supply is erratic. Nonetheless, the low availability of current literature, methodologies and analytical modules not withstanding, researchers lack the motivation to search for the former or utilise whatever little or “out-of-date” literature is available. The actual or assumed availability of current literature is therefore affecting the computing research manpower quality in most departments. This is exhibited in inadequate proposal writing skills and reckless and poor quality proposals submitted to donor agencies. These types of proposals stand little chance of securing funding from highly competitive research funding environments, for to the funders the poorly written proposals implies that the data collection, analysis and final report would be equally as poorly done, thereby not meriting the risk of providing the research funds. Poor infrastructure has also been a stumbling block to funding. Many computing departments do not have, say, high computing laboratories to support computing research. The few computers available are used as word processors instead of research aides. Most research softwaresuch as spreadsheets, ethnography, EPI, INFO, and SPSS are either not installed in most computers, or where they have been installed, they are foreign to many researchers who have not received training in their application. Supply of skilled labour The future of national wealth-creating capability depends substantially on the knowledge and skills of the working population. (RAOE, 2003). This means that it is vital that computing departments supply skilled ICT graduates to business and industry. It is important also to introduce advanced research methodology as a subject in computing research. At degree level modernisation of university degree courses through incorporation of subjects such as business and communication skills into the syllabus could help to broaden the appeal of engineering (computing) as well as produce well rounded graduates. Part 1: Measuring Research Excellence in Computing 7 Gender and computing In as much as some governments like Uganda have gone a step further in supporting gender equity and equality in higher institutions of learning, much more has to be done in supporting women in ICT courses. Multiple approaches are needed to target school-age children, university applicants and students, women who are already taking career breaks or returning form career breaks (RAOE, 2003). The Academy proposes that grants should be made available for women returning to work after career breaks to undergo a short, intensive period of training to update their skills and knowledge, and women taking career breaks should be given access to relevant journals and other sources of information to enable them to keep abreast of important developments during their time away from work. Centres of expertise and excellence It is very important to build centres of research excellence. However, rather than attempting to artificially induce or assemble centres of excellence, existing centres of excellence should be supported and promoted (RAOE, 2003). Centres of excellence are usually created by a set of exceptionally able people who for one reason or another find themselves in the same place. Virtual centres of excellence can also evolve as a result of strong relationships between outstanding individuals or departments located in geographically dispersed locations. According to UNU (2003), the centres of expertise are developed in order to increase connections and networks between companies and researchers of the universities and research institutes. Combing different sorts of skills and knowledge in centres of expertise it is possible to solve serious practical problems critical to the economic and social development of changing societies (UNU, 2003). Research Methodology A survey of computing departments in East Africa and their perceptions on sustainable research excellence was conducted to ascertain the initial model in Figure 1. Thereafter detailed interviews were conducted with heads of computing departments to ask pertinent questions about the nature of and their perspectives on sustainable research excellence. Action research (Losekoot et al. (2001), March and Smith, (1995) and Kock (2001), seem best suited for this type of research, since it is vital that we investigate the phenomenon of sustainable research excellence in its own natural settings. In evaluating computing departmental research excellence, an initial stage should consider government and university computing departments’ mission statements. In the UK, The Royal Academy of Engineering (RAOE, 2000) suggests research assessment in the field of science and technology should be linked to EPSRC’s general statement and mission (Segovia and Galang, 2002). This means any research assessment should be performed in relation to mission statements (Epstein and Roy 2001; Segovia and Galang, 2002; and RAOE, 2000). 8 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality Subjects A total of 42 academic staff across East Africa in computing departments were randomly selected from three regional universities: the University of Nairobi, University of Dar- es-Salaam and Makerere University. Twenty-seven academics returned the survey for a response rate of 63%. Table 1.1 shows the respondents’ demographic information. A wide variety of academic positions and roles within computing departments are presented. Information related to length of service, publications and research students’ supervision are also presented. As can be seen from the demographic data of respondents, a wide variety of academic positions within computing departments is represented. Table 1.1: Summary of Respondents’ Demographics Demographic Category % Academic Level Head of Department 75 Professor and Associate Professor 36 Senior lecturer 18 Lecturer 33 Assistant Lecturer 51 Gender Male 85 Female 15 Years of Service with Department 1 Year 7.4 2 Years 14.8 3 Years 22.2 4 Years 14.8 7 years 26 Organisational Data Table 1.2 shows characteristics of computing departments employing the respondents. thirty-six percent of respondents were either Associate or full Professors, while Senior Lecturers were only 18%. Gender balance is also still a big problem in many East African universities as illustrated; only 15% of respondents were females. Length of service in these departments also shows interesting trends: only 26% of respondents had been with the departments for over seven years of service meaning that these are all new departments in their respective universities. In terms of organisational size-respondents from both Nairobi and Dar-es-Salaam constituted 26% each while those of Makerere represented 48%. Part 1: Measuring Research Excellence in Computing 9 Table 1.2: Organisational Data for Respondents in Computing Departments Measure Category % University Nairobi 26 Dar-es-Salaam 26 Makerere 48 Highest Educational Level BSc/BA 11 MSc/MA 55 MBA 4 PhD 26 DSc 4 Current Area of Expertise Scientific Computing 18 Software Engineering 18 Information Systems 33 Networks 26 Distributed Systems and Artificial Intelligence 30 Simulation Modelling 5 Nature of Publication Learned Refereed Journal 10 Refereed Conference Paper 11 Professional Journal Publications 6 Patent Publications 3 Nature of the Research Activity Study of what is possible (including bio mathematical modelling) 52 The study of existing naturally occurring information processing systems 52 Research involving creation of new useful information processing systems 70 Ccreation and evaluation of tools, formats and techniques to support all activities 52 Social and economic issues, e.g. IT investment, Ethical and legal issues 52 In terms of highest academic qualification, only 11% of respondents had only the first degree. These constituted mainly teaching assistants and assistant lecturers. While the largest number had a masters degree qualification (50%), a good number also had PhDs (26%). This demonstrates that the computing departments are still young and growing. 10 In terms of academic area of expertise, six areas were sited: Scientific computing (18%), Software Engineering (18%), Information Systems (33%), Networks (26%), Distributed Systems and Artificial Intelligence (30%), and Simulation Modelling (5%). Perceived Measures of Research Excellence Research outputs in computing departments in terms of publications are still on the lower side. Only 10% of the outputs appeared in international journals. In terms of research activity in the three computing departments, several respondents (70%) stated that they were engaged in the creation of new useful information processing systems. This is consistent with departments’ measures of research excellence as illustrated in Table 1.3. Table 1.3: Measures of Research Excellence in Computing Departments Measures Mean (Average) Rank Computing research influences stock of useful knowledge 4.32 5 Computing research contributes to wealth-generation in terms of increasing trained skilled graduates 4.50 2 Computing research creates scientific tools and methods 4.33 3 Computing research develops research networks and stimulates social interaction 4.33 3 Computing research increases the capacity for scientific and technological problem-solving 4.52 1 Computing research creates new spin-off companies in the form of technology transfer 4.09 6 Conclusions An investigation into the current computing research excellence and the level of contribution of computing departments in four East African universities is presented. A survey found that heads of computing departments have a favourable attitude towards computing research excellence and vitality in the region. However, the literature on computing research excellence shows a growing gap in higher education institutions in developing countries. Two potential causes of this lag is lack of academic research networks between developed and developing countries, higher education institutions and lack of sustainable research strategies among computing departments in developing countries. A survey finds that developing a framework for measuring computing research excellence and vitality in developing countries might help research collaboration and networking with business organisations and government funding agencies that can sustain computing research excellence. However, the survey finds that the heads of computing departments do not view sustainable key computing strategies the same way. 11 The authors argue that this difference in sustainable computing strategies in developing countries is a possible source of the lag behind their counterparts in developing countries. While quite revealing, the study does have limitations. These include the relatively small sample sizes in this and prior studies. However, the rankings used are more robust owing to their ordinal nature. Perhaps a longitudinal study may discover strategies employed by heads of departments to address these gaps. Sustainable research capacity in the field of computing is vital. In this chapter the authors have placed emphasis on collaboration, interdisciplinary research, funding and curriculum development in computing. While we were not able to exhaust all the factors that constitute research excellence, we believe that the key factors discussed in this paper will be very useful for computing departments to gear their research towards excellence and vitality. Kock [6] suggests that conducting organisational action research involves helping an organisation in solving its problems and becoming “better” in terms of key attributes such as productivity and quality of services/products. Immediate beneficiaries of this research are computing departments in developing countries, particularly those pursuing establishment of centres of excellence. Measuring research excellence is increasingly viewed by research grants awarding bodies worldwide as a viable approach to determine the quality of research and its contribution to cumulative scientific knowledge. However, an important obstacle for many computer science departments in developing countries to accessing foreign research funding is that they have no research assessment performance levels of these departments. The work proposed will be of interest to the international community and in particular higher education institutions and research awarding bodies for international collaborative projects. The research will also benefit East African universities in general, in strengthening their computing sustainable research capacity and competitiveness. In future such frameworks can also be generalised to other disciplines to develop specific measures of excellence. References Daniel H.Z. (2001). A model of value assessment in collaborative R&D programs. Bozeman et al. (2004). Scientists collaboration strategies: implications for scientific and technical human capital. Cohen L., L. Manion and K. Morrison (2000). Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition London. Davenport, S. (2004). Panic and Panacea: Brain Drain and Science and Technology Human Capital Policy, Research Policy 33 pp. 617-630 Epstein M. J., and M-J Roy (2001). ‘Sustainability in Action: Identifying and Measuring the Key Performance Drivers’, Long Range Planning Journal 34 pp. 585-604. Ertas A., T. Maxwell, V.P. Rainey, and M.M. Tanik (2003). ‘Transformation of Higher Education: The Transdisciplinary Approach in Engineering’, IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 46, No. 2 May 12 Evans, D.L, S.M. Goodnick and R.J. Roedel (2003). 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PA R T T W O C o m p u t i n g R e s e a r c h i n H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n 15 2 Towards Enhancing Learning with Information and Communication Technology in Universities Farida Muzaki and Ezra Mugisa This chapter explores the expansion of higher education institutions in many developing countries and the corresponding increase in the student population. Putting in place adequate facilities to accommodate the increased numbers of students is very costly. This is particularly true in developing countries of the world where universities are constrained by inadequate funding. In this context great expectation lies in using online learning to enable access to learning resources, provision of instruction and guidelines to learners and for communication between learners and instructors without the two being in the lecture room physically. Online learning provides a strategy to respond to the three major challenges in the provision of university education: cost, demographics and quality. Farida Muzaki and Ezra Mugisa look at how online learning can be adopted in universities and a framework for adaptation is suggested. The framework will identify key areas where centrally coordinated national initiatives are required to enable adaptation of online learning. The framework will be based on the Bates ACTIONS model. Specific organisational issues and existing infrastructure will also be considered. The ACTIONS model looks at access, costs, teaching functions, interaction and user-friendliness, organisational issues, novelty and speed of course development as some of the factors organisations should consider before implementing online learning. Introduction Delivering courses via online methods has increasingly become an important issue for universities and an area where a call for research on the implementation challenges and problems has been emphasised. Over the last decade there has been a tremendous shift from conventional teaching and learning to modes where the Internet now plays a key role. Online learning is increasingly forming an integral part of course delivery and instruction, and is shaping traditional learning worldwide (Damonse, 2003). This is due to the ever-increasing number of secondary school leavers. The governments of many countries are expected to expand their higher education institutions to absorb these students. However, putting in place adequate facilities such as lecture rooms as a solution to the problem is very costly. This is particularly true with regard to the poorest countries of the world where inadequate funding is the norm (Zarummai et al., 2004). 16 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality Why universities in Uganda should use online learning Globalisation has made the process of planning for national systems of university education very difficult. Any local planning that does not take into consideration global forces is bound to fail. We seem to be living in a borderless world where whatever happens in one corner of the world affects us all. It is important to note that higher education is part of the engine of the technology that has brought about globalisation (Kasozi, 2003). Universities have to follow and adapt global education trends in technology and innovation in order to produce graduates that are multiskilled and competitive in the modern workplace (Damoense, 2003). Higher education systems all over the world are taking advantage of online learning in education delivery. Online learning provides a strategy to respond to the three major challenges in the provision of university education: cost, quality and demographics. Private universities depend entirely on fees collection to offset institutional expenses while financial support for public universities from government is inadequate and reducing every year. This means that there is need to match improved quality with the limited financial resources that are available. Maintaining/improving quality with increasing numbers of students can only be effected with fundamental changes in academic instruction and learning how to use new tools and methods. Universities are being evaluated against a different set of standards from those of the past. The emphasis is on outcome. Higher education is judged by what students have learnt, not what they have been taught. A big percentage of university students are working adults. These students are “place-bound”, therefore this dictates that the “classroom” should not be constrained by time and place. As Bennett et al. (Bennett et al., 1999) points out the “Virtual Campus” may lead to savings in both real estate and teaching costs. Indeed with the ever-increasing advancement and integration of computer and telecommunication technology, online learning can greatly enhance learning by providing access to learning resources, providing instruction and guidelines to learners and for communication between learners and teachers without the teacher and the student being in the lecture room physically. Challenges to be Addressed The most serious challenge posed to higher education is the rapid expansion of university enrolments (Kasozi, 2003; Zarummai et al., 2004 ) yet the educational institutions do not have enough funds to acquire the facilities needed to deliver quality education to increased numbers of students. The system currently in use, especially in universities in developing countries, is that of only face-to-face lectures, because of the rapid increase in the student populations. Lecture rooms, textbooks, and laboratories are not enough. Given the problem of inadequate facilities, online learning can greatly enhance learning by providing access to learning resources, providing instruction and guidelines to learners and for communication between learners and teachers without the teacher and the student being Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 17 in the lecture room physically (Zarummai, et al., 2004). Unfortunately the majority of the universities have not set strategies/policies to address factors such as resistance to change, inadequate skilled personnel, infrastructure, among others, that are barriers to the implementation of online learning (Tusubira and Mulira , 2004). Universities must address issues related to the majority of the students being working adults and inadequate facilities with the use of online learning, so that learning can be separated from the current norm of place and time. That is, course materials are made available to students any time, anywhere. But before universities can embark on putting in place online learning there is need for a clear framework, which acts as a basis on which decisions on online learning are made. In dealing with this problem this paper looks at the following: • What kinds of techniques are used for online learning by other universities? • How can these techniques be adapted to universities in Uganda? We then propose a framework for adaptation of online learning in Uganda. Literature Review In this section we attempt to provide the scope and depth of the literature on online learning. Whereas the focus is enhancing learning with ICT in universities, the phenomena are treated more generally. Online learning has been used by universities in Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom , Canada and other places to supplement face-to-face teaching and enhance learning (Housego and Freeman, 2000). It has also been pointed out by Bennett et al. (Bennett et al., 1999) that there is growing interest among Australian universities in the use of the Internet and World Wide Web for teaching and learning. The following are some of the universities currently using online learning: • University of Western Sydney. • Open University, United Kingdom. • University of Phoenix. • University of South Australia. • Massey University It should be observed that the need to cope with increased teaching loads and dwindling resources is one of the reasons why universities have began incorporating online learning in higher education in recent years. This is supported by Zarummai et al., (2004) who argue that in many developing countries government expenditure on university education is reducing every year. Housego and Freeman (2000), in their case studies on integrating the use of web- based learning systems into student learning, found that integration of web-based learning systems in teaching and learning can be done in a number of ways. These include improving access to information and resources, use of frequently asked questions and announcements to improve administration, providing additional discussion forums for 18 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality feedback and social chat, among others. They also found that the most effective uses of technology-supported teaching are possible when underpinned by student-centred teaching practices that encourage students to adopt a deep approach to learning. Bennett et al. (Bennett et al., 1999) studied staff development options for online teachers and present a model in which a first-hand experience of online learning becomes the basis upon which university teachers can build to form their own ideas about a particular approach to teaching and learning online. They found out this method provided a genuine learning context allowing staff to experience online learning as students would. The success of this approach as a preliminary staff development tool suggests that for academic staff with little experience of teaching and learning using the Internet, learning about online learning should begin at the first point with hands-on experience of an online course. Participating in such a course and having the opportunity to reflect on and critically appraise it enable staff to draw upon their own teaching knowledge and experience in face-to-face modes and make connections to the new medium. This experience can then become the basis for subsequent staff development programmes focusing on technological issues specific to individual contexts. Zarummai et al. (Zarummai et al., 2004) highlight the deployment of free open source software tools for distance e-learning in African universities. They observe that given the limited financial resources and capabilities, open source software provides a way for African educational institutions to help themselves, not to wait for the First World to provide help. This will help African countries to leapfrog into the information age through reduced costs, less dependence on imported technology and its ability to be customised to local languages. Moreover, by giving users access to its inner workings, open source software could stimulate the local software industry. In a study by Ladyshewsky (2004) he found that student performance in online learning environments is in some cases better when compared to face-to-face mode of delivery. He emphasises that when a high degree of pedagogical thought goes into the design and delivery of online learning, and is supported by adequate resources, students can achieve positive educational outcomes. But it is important to observe that to ensure that there is a pedagogical focus to a unit that is offered in technologically supported learning environments, a variety of principles should be followed. These principles include: student-teacher contact through email and bulletin boards, active learning techniques which involve problem solving, inquiry, and project based tasks, prompt feedback, both person-to-person and within the group, communication of high expectations by making criteria and learning outcomes explicit, time on task which involves fostering awareness of time constraints and making contributions relevant, respect for diverse learning communities, learners are given freedom to control and explore, and reciprocity and collaboration among students. Matovu (2003) carried out a study on information and communication technology issues in Uganda’s education sector in the central region. His findings and conclusions were that there are still many challenges facing ICT spread in the education sector. He highlights the challenges as initial capital being prohibitive, high recurring expenditure and inadequacy of technical personnel. However, it should be observed that he Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 19 investigated the level of computer literacy and competence among employees in the education sector. He did not investigate online learning in universities. This renders his study of little use for the enhancement of learning with ICT in universities. Kasozi (2003), in a study of the capacity of African universities to participate in global higher education supply and production, surveyed tertiary institutions in Uganda. He considers computers and Internet access as indicators of the capacity to generate knowledge. The study found that the average computer-to-student ratio for institutions surveyed was one computer to over fifty students. The study also found that the ICT infrastructure of the institutions surveyed was extremely weak. However, the study did not go ahead to investigate staff access to computers, which is very relevant to this study. Mulira (2004), in an ongoing study, looks at a service approach to information systems implementation in institutions of higher learning. The study highlights that the services-based approach to information systems implementation proposes a solution that will mitigate the socio-economic inhibitors that have led to the negligible efficiency gains in the deployment of automated information systems. Research Methodology A descriptive survey design was used for the study. Data was collected through document analysis. We chose this method because, given the nature of this study, it provides valuable information about the problem. According to Krishnaswami (Krishnaswami, 2002) document analysis is a research technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of contents of documents. Articles and surveys in the literature of online learning implementation in universities was used to develop the theoretical framework. This research takes the case of Uganda’s universities and explores how to develop a framework for adapting online learning techniques that are being used elsewhere in the world to enhance learning in Uganda’s university education. The population of this study consisted of universities in Uganda. These universities fall in two categories listed below: • Public universities: Universities sponsored, ruled and funded by government. These include Makerere, Kyambogo, Gulu and Mbarara universities. • Private universities: These include Nkozi, Nkumba, Mukono, Islamic University in Uganda, Kampala International University, Kampala University, Bugema, Namasagali, Ndejje and Aga Khan. These private universities have been founded and are owned by non-governmental organisations mostly religious organisations, or by private entrepreneurs. Most of the private universities are still very small and very fragile. They are not well funded. Proposed Solution This paper proposes a framework for the adaptation of online learning to the Ugandan environment. 20 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality A framework is a model that can be used to guide policy, decision-making or future strategic planning. It will provide a direction for the adaptation of online learning in Uganda’s universities. The framework will identify key areas where centrally coordinated national initiatives are required to enable efficient and effective online learning adaptation. It will also include a vision and set of principles for adaptation of online learning in Uganda. We will develop a framework basing on the Bates ACTIONS model for organisational frameworks for consideration of educational technology. This model discusses access, costs, teaching functions, Interaction and user-friendliness, organisational issues, novelty and speed of course development/adaptation as some of the factors for consideration in the organisational framework for consideration of online learning. The ACTIONS model proposed by Bates (Bates, 1997) also focuses on institutional strategies. Interim Lessons Literature analysed in this study indicates that: Online learning in universities where it has been implemented is not treated as an overnight task. It is accepted that the process takes time and resources and motivation is also an important consideration if the outcomes are to be of appropriate quality. For example, at Massey University in New Zealand, it has been left to individual colleges to decide, the extent to which online services are compulsory or voluntary for students and to what extent the teaching, servicing and communication with students is conducted online. At Massey University staff training is run by the central computing support and training and development unit, with the help of instructional design consultants. These range from use of WebCT to creating effective online courses. This is because they have realised that providing a tool does not guarantee quality without proper instructional guidance. Lecturers are allowed a certain level of creativity and flexibility required to create courses. This means some online courses may use delivery platforms other than WebCT, or may create particular tools outside the WebCT environment to suit the individual needs. The university provides centralised support for WebCT, but individual colleges and departments can use other solutions as justified by the needs of individual programmes as long as there are adequate resources available to support that solution within the college or department. Quality assurance in online learning and teaching at Massey University is the responsibility of the centralised online learning-monitoring group. This approach ensures that the rules are the same for all regardless of campus, department or course. The majority of the standards for the development, delivery, support, and assessment of online courses including instructional design still remain the responsibility of various central units. The quality assurance of actual curriculum and content and its adequacy to the overall programme remains with the departments and colleges. At the University of South Australia they developed a system for online learning called University of South Australia network (Unisanet). This system is available to every staff member and all students. It accommodates as many courses as possible without further Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 21 technical development. It involves linking of both existing corporate databases and custom-built data stores to webpages, operated through a standard web interface using web forms and wizards. These are prepared by the Unisanet project team and allow academic staff to create content and shape the teaching and learning arrangements of online subjects without requiring specialist or other necessary support. At the University of Phoenix, all instruction is organised around a collaborative model that positions the instructor as a learning facilitator. Programmes are developed by faculty teams to ensure that course objectives and outcomes are presented in a sequence that builds both knowledge and confidence. This learner-centric approach is complemented by a customer orientation that places high value on all aspects of customer service. Each student is provided with a team of specialised counsellors who work together from their respective areas of expertise to ensure accurate and timely assistance with enrolment, finance and academic services. The University of Phoenix offers complete degree programmes entirely online. This includes all administration, registration and acquisition of course materials. The curriculum is outcomes-based and workplace-oriented. All faculty must be employed in the area they teach. Every student works in a study group or team to develop workplace skills such as critical thinking, teamwork and so on. Testing takes place to ensure that the students are learning and that faculty is teaching what they are supposed to teach. The curriculum is professionally developed on a master curriculum calendar and is assessed every year, ensuring that courses are kept up to date. At the University of Western Sydney, webCT is the online learning software being used. The university has incorporated the theme of enhanced flexibility into a five-year strategic plan to provide high quality education offerings. The goal is to ensure there is online content for every unit of study by the end of 2005, and that every course would have at least one core unit of study that is completely online. A number of steps have been taken to ensure quick and acceptable implementation of WebCT. They had to ensure that WebCT is supported by the university’s existing information technology infrastructure. A robust interface was developed between WebCT and other enterprise level systems, especially for student administration.The existing learning materials were consolidated from other systems to WebCT as quickly as possible by enabling staff to migrate content themselves. An online support service for staff and students was established, creating business practices that embeded quality improvement and assurance measures. Staff training addressed diverse needs since some staff had never used online learning before while others were well known online learning innovators. Two members of staff completed WebCT’s certified trainer programme. These conducted workshops on maximising the use of WebCT, as well as identifying the best practices from across all colleges and schools. In particular attention was paid to ensuring that the learning management system is supported by the university’s existing IT infrastructure. 22 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality Framework for Adaptation of online Learning The proposed online learning adaptation framework portrays the issues that need to be considered when a decision on the adaptation of online learning is to be made. A framework is a blueprint or model that can be used to guide policy, decision-making or future strategic planning. The ACTIONS model developed by Bates (Bates, 1997) will be used in coming up with the proposed framework.. The reason for the choice of the ACTIONS model is that it provides room for including the organisational issues, both external and internal, that are specific to a given institution. It also looks at the existing infrastructure of a given country and government initiatives as influencing factors in online learning consideration. However, in the context of a developing country like Uganda, the existing infrastructure, power supply, resistance to change, Internet access and access to computers are important factors that cannot enable us to implement online learning techniques as they exist in the developed world, and this calls for adaptation. The ACTIONS model looks at the following issues: Access The minimum requirement for use of online learning is a computer, communication program and access to the Internet. Therefore issues of access to computers and the Internet both at home and at university should be considered. In Uganda very few university students have access to a computer and Internet at home. Universities must have enough computers on campus to enable students access to online learning materials. Kasozi (Kasozi, 2003) observes that computers have increasingly become both exercise books and textbooks for University students. For every four students there should be one computer as well as access to the Internet. Students need at least six hours of computer hands-on-practice each day in order to gainfully use them. In a study by Kasozi (Kasozi, 2003), it was found that in the academic year 1998/99 at Mbarara University of Science and Technology there where 10 computers for the 419 registered students. For about every 41 students there is only one computer. It is also important to observe that there is one Internet user for every 5000 people in Africa in (World Bank, 2000). Costs The costs associated with using online learning generally include capital costs for the purchase of equipment and operational costs as instructional development costs, staff costs, and maintenance costs. It is important that the policy addresses the specifics of how funding will be raised to sustain services and systems. The key recurrent cost elements that should be considered include: cost of bandwidth, cost of maintenance of equipment and applications, recurrent cost of software licences, cost of replacement of equipment. It is important to note that a computer bought today must be replaced in three to five years’ time. Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 23 Emoluments for ICT professionals have also to be considered; they are generally at levels that are likely to be higher than the average because of competition for the same human resource by the private sector. The cost issues also impact on decisions such as whether or not to use freeware and to develop internal capacity for software development. It also impacts on the decisions of whether or not to outsource information resource management services. Teaching and Learning Bates (Bates, 2000) observes that “the best use of technology occurs when the academic not only has a deep understanding of the subject but also has an imagination and vision of how the subject could be taught differently with technologies”. Technology- based learning is best served through teachers utilising a project management model, a central faculty development office, a problem-based approach, and show and tell demonstrations by peers. For the learner enhanced skills in analysis, argumentation, research and critical thinking as well as collaborative project work, and knowledge building are key educational benefits. But it is important to note that in Uganda the number of people qualified to teach in universities in the whole country is limited and some staff are not fully or adequately trained to do their job properly. Organisational issues Online learning will require that a number of organisational arrangements be made and barriers removed. There is need for such creation of awareness and changing of mindset within the University. Lack of awareness goes along with mindset in that people get stuck to old ways of doing things. A key to addressing change of mindset is full involvement in the process of creating the online environment and getting key decision-makers to visit other institutions where online learning has been implemented and where its benefits can be seen (Tusubira and Mulira , 2004). Organising workshops to create awareness can help in addressing awareness and mindset problems. There is need for ongoing commitment and involvement of top management and the whole team. It is important to make online learning responsive to the university vision and mission Telecommunication Infrastructure Online learning requires Internet access, and transmission of multimedia materials requires high bandwidth. Universities can tackle some issues themselves. They can come together in order to buy bandwidth in bulk so as to reduce costs. To gain this kind of negotiating power, institutional leaders and IT departments must cooperate. Institutional managers should also have policies for using bandwidth sensibly by defining acceptable use. These cover 24 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality the kind of data that may be transferred to and from the institution and the type of websites that may be visited. Summary Universities in Uganda have the challenge of responding to increased numbers of students leaving secondary school yet there has been no significant increase in funding from government. This challenge can be resolved through adapting new methods of delivering higher education. Online learning can be used to overcome this challenge. But there is need for a framework that acts as a model in guiding the adaptation of online learning. This study is intended to come up with such a framework. The findings from this study have not yet been concluded, the framework is not yet complete. However, the interim findings from this study provide universities in Uganda with what other universities in the world have done and this gives them a clear picture of how they can adapt online learning to the Ugandan environment, considering the cultural and economic differences. References Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing Technological Change: Strategies for Colleges and University Leaders. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Bates, A.W. (1995). Technology, Open Learning and Distance Education. Routledge, London. Bennett, S., Priest, A. and Macpherson, C. (1999). ‘Learning about online learning: An approach to staff development for University teachers’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology Vol. 15 pp 207-221. Damoense, M. Y. (2003). ‘Online learning: Implications for effective learning for higher education in South Africa’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 19 pp 25-45. Housego, S. and Freeman, M. (2000). ‘Case studies: Integrating the use of web based learning systems into student learning’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology Vol. 16 pp 258-282. Kasozi, A.B.K.(2003). University Education in Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities for Reform. Fountain, Kampala. Krishnaswami, O. R. (2002). Methodology of Research in Social Sciences. Himalaya, Mumbai. Ladyshewsky, K.R. (2004). ‘E-Learning compared with face to face: Differences in the academic achievement of postgraduate business students’. Austrialian Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 20 pp 316-336. Matovu, J. (2003). ‘Information Communication Technology (ICT) Issues in Uganda’s Education Sector: A Case Study of the Central Region’. Journal of Education, Vol 4 pp 9-23 Makerere University:Kampala. Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 25 Tusubira, F.F. and N. Mulira. (2004). ‘Integration of ICT in Organisations: Challenges and Best Practice Recommendations Based on the Experience of Makerere University and Other Organisations’. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Universities Taking a Leading Role in ICT-enabled Human Development. 6th-8th Sept.2004, Kampala, Uganda. World Bank (2000). Can Africa Claim the 21st Century? World Bank, Washington DC: World Bank. Zarummai, S.N., I.A. Chage, and C. Uwadia. (2004). ‘The Deployment of FOSS Tools for Long Distance e-learning in African Universities.’ In Proceedings of the International Conference on Universities Taking a Leading Role in ICT-enabled Human Development, 6th-8th Sept.2004, Kampala, Uganda. 26 3 The Doctoral Programme in Computing at Makerere University: Lessons Learned and Future Improvements Venansius Baryamureeba and Ddembe Williams This chapter presents a doctoral programme in computing of Makerere University. It is a research and coursework education programme intended to inform investigators and build the academic field of computing with a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and integrative view. Indeed, computing and engineering offers a new design approach which calls for an interdisceplinary approach to research. We first developed an operationalisation of interdisciplinarity, followed by guided interviews and questionnaires. The findings of the study showed that students lack research skills and methodologies in computing. Coursework and dissertation was recommended as opposed to thesis for future improvements. The coursework is aimed at demonstrating an understanding and detailed philisophy and methodology of computing, data representation and procesing, which is directly related to the quality of results. The doctoral programme is intended to catalyse this approach as an academic discipline. Baryamureeba and Williams propose a PhD curriculum consisting of one year of coursework and two years of research. The curriculum is structured in such a way that by the end of the first semester the student will have an approved research proposal and by the end of the first year the student will have published at least a review paper in his/ her area of research. The main advantage of this curriculum is that students will be able to work independently after the first year and as a result they can finish their 2nd and/ or 3rd year at another university. This programme approach will help in producing highly qualified PhD holders in environments where sufficient PhD supervisors are lacking. The proposed PhD programme in computing with a focus on computer science, information technology, information systems and software engineering forms a framework that could be adopted and customised in any discipline where PhD supervisors are scarce yet the demand for PhD training is high. Introduction The Makerere University Council established Makerere University Faculty of Computing and Information Technology (CIT) on 19 January 2005 with four academic departments of computer science, information systems, information technology and networks. As a result the Institute of Computer Science, which was established by the Makerere University Council in 1985, was phased out and replaced by the Department of Computer Science within the CIT. The CIT now offers a wide variety of services ranging from teaching and research to consultancy to both the public and private sectors. With the vision of being a leader in ICT/computing training, research and consultancy Part 2: Computing Research in Higher Education 27 services on the African continent, the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology is an innovative and market-oriented institution, pursuing inquiry, discovery and application through excellence in teaching and learning, value-added research, cutting-edge consultancy and vibrant student life. To address staff development needs within the region, the faculty started a doctoral programme in computing. The doctoral programme is expected to produce highly skilled and a specialised ICT labour force to cater for the sophisticated IT jobs in the ever-increasing ICT sector in Uganda in particular and the African region in general. The current research and teaching on the doctoral programme are focused on four areas, namely Computer Science (CS), Information Systems (IS), Software Engineering (SE) and Information Technology (IT). These researches address both local and international needs. Many of the efforts are closely combined with other departments, faculties and universities in East Africa, UK, Norway, and the Netherlands, thus making the postgraduate education a high quality interdisciplinary and internationally collaborative programme. The faculty, in response to the high rate of growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Uganda specifically, and the African region in general, introduced a doctoral programme in computing in 2002. This was in order to sustain the high growth useful to the economy by grooming highly skilled and specialised ICT labor force to cater for the sophisticated IT jobs. The doctoral programme in computing was structured to enable students from the master’s programme pursue further studies in the four areas, which are also the main focus of the master’s degrees. Within the CIT, the doctoral programme will provide the four departments with PhD holders in addition to the existing ones and those currently training abroad and in effect promote sustainable research excellence in computing in the long term. The core staff on the doctoral programme in computing comprise CIT staff, visiting fellows and part-time staff with PhDs in relevant disciplines from both the private and public sectors. The Netherlands Organisation for International Cooperation in Higher Education (Nuffic) has provided a grant to support staff missions for professors from the University of Groningen and Radboud University in Netherlands in the areas of teaching and research. The CIT is in advanced stages of beginning the construction of an 11,000 square metre building to provide more space for the doctoral programme and other programmes in the faculty. The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) provided support for the building that currently houses the programme. The objectives of the doctoral programme can be summarised as follows: 1) To inform investigators and/ or researchers in computing at the highest level of excellence. The PhD graduates are expected to have a broad vision in the subject field of study, consciousness of the role of scientific research in economic development and social change, and ability to become champions in academia. 2) To allow students to develop philosophical and theoretical knowledge and analytical skills in the specific specialist areas defined by their taught units, 28 Measuring Computing Research Excellence and Vitality and ability to continue updating their knowledge and skills after completion of study in relation to scholarship and research. 3) To enhance the capacity of the CIT to serve as a scientific knowledge hub in sub-Saharan Africa. The programme is dynamically designed to convey a wide spectrum of scientific and technological disciplines critical to computing, thus it is interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary in nature. The PhD programme emphasises the philosophy and methodology of the representation and transformation of information, including theoretical and experimental aspects. Design Philosophy of the Doctoral Programme As computing is developing and becoming more complicated and/ or sophisticated in ways of information processing, information itself is becoming a pervasive integrative theme across the sciences, humanities and engineering (Seguel et al., 2003). Critical questions that touch on the nature and flow of information arise, such as the design of self-optimising, self-healing software, and the logic of vision and perception, among others. In these examples and in many other science and engineering problems, information appears at many levels, and flows between many levels, shaping up information systems. We define information systems as a natural or artificial system whose properties, functionality, structure and /or interfaces are altered by or depend on informational phenomena. Informational phenomena, in turn, refer mostly to the nature and transformation of information, or information processing. The PhD programme is a major attempt well beyond this scheme, incorporating information and information processing methodologies and the science and engineering they serve, in a very intimate way. The programme links researchers with a deep knowledge in a scientific discipline and provide them and their students with an adequate academic framework and the means