Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Discover Water Review Water management for rice production: a key component of food security in East Africa Denis Bwire1,3 · Hirotaka Saito1 · Roy C. Sidle2 · Moses Mugisha3 Received: 26 August 2024 / Accepted: 29 January 2025 © The Author(s) 2025   OPEN Abstract Water is a valuable resource for rice production, which is an integral component of food security in East Africa (EA). Rice farming is expanding in the region, with up to 90% produced on smallholder farms using traditional flooding and rain- fed methods, vulnerable to climate change and variability. Despite EA’s enormous agricultural and crop potential, the region largely depends on rice imports (> 500,000 tons annually) from Asia due to rising gaps between production and consumption. Sustainable water management practices, including alternate wetting and drying (AWD), system of rice intensification (SRI), and drip irrigation are critical for paddy and upland rice production although practiced at micro- research levels with limited adoption of such technologies by smallholder farmers. Herein, we synthesize key information on smallholder irrigation agriculture development and implications for food security in changing climates in the four EA countries (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia), based on scientific literature and reports. Several studies indicate water scarcity is a major threat to rice production, while poverty and food insecurity are linked to low agricultural productiv- ity. Although rice production has increased since 2000 because of the slight expansion of irrigation, yields are still low due to insufficient irrigation development, climate change, and variability and poor agronomic practices. Nonetheless, climate-smart water management technologies such as AWD, SRI, and drip irrigation are less used by paddy and upland rice smallholder farmers for several reasons including limited awareness, funding, and technical knowledge. Therefore, commitments of government sectors, NGOs, farmer-based organizations, and private sectors with clear policies are needed to enhance technology transfer, action research, farmer training, and innovation development. These actions are vital to promote knowledge generation and the adoption of technologies to improve water management for increased rice yields, livelihoods, and food security in changing climates. Article highlights 1. Water management is vital for rice farming in East Africa to boost food security, given the rising water scarcity with climate change. 2. Drip irrigation, SRI and AWD practices for rice farming improve water use efficiency, yields, and resilience to drought. 3. Policies that promote such climate-smart technologies boost rice production and support food security. Keywords  Rice Farming · Water Scarcity · Climate change · Irrigation technologies · Climate-smart agriculture *  Denis Bwire, bwiredenis@gmail.com; Hirotaka Saito, hiros@cc.tuat.ac.jp; Roy C. Sidle, roy.sidle@ucentralasia.org; Moses Mugisha, mugimoss@gmail.com | 1United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3‑8‑1, Harumicho, Fuchu, Tokyo 183‑8538, Japan. 2Mountain Societies Research Institute, University of Central Asia, 125/1 Toktogul Street, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan 720001. 3Department of Water Resources Engineering, Busitema University, P. O Box. 236, Tororo, Uganda. Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z 1  Introduction The concept of water as a natural resource is an essential component of agricultural crop production and food security at the global scale [1]. Water can be a matter of life and death depending on how it is managed as well as an instrument for economic growth, poverty alleviation, and increased crop production [2]. While food security can be defined as food availability to meet one’s nutritional requirements [3], broadly it represents whether the population has the monetary and non-monetary resources to allow everyone access to adequate quantities and quality of food [4]. Globally, the role of water in ensuring food security and well-being is underappreciated, while food security remains a crucial component of Sustainable Development Goals and government policies in East Africa (EA). Additionally, water scarcity is becoming a global concern and the number of people living in areas with insufficient water is increasing in the developed, develop- ing, and underdeveloped parts of the world [5]. In EA, these water shortages are negatively impacting agricultural crop production with many households unable to produce or buy sufficient nutritious food. EA is an underprivileged region vulnerable to climate change with about 80% of the population living in rural areas. The effects of climate change, ranging from extreme weather events to long-term sea level rise, impact rural and urban areas alike [6]. One farmer’s excessive rainfall upstream can be another’s devastating urban flood downstream. Water is the great connector between climate impacts and wider efforts to reduce vulnerability, increase irrigation acreage and crop production, and accelerate poverty reduction. Agriculture, mainly rain-fed, is the backbone of most EA economies, contributing to livelihoods and food security for most of the population [7] with climatic conditions favoring the culti- vation of diverse and high-value crops. High value crop production depends on water from rainfall or poorly managed irrigation systems. These crops can be categorized into six groups [8]: (a) ‘paddy rice’; (b) other cereals such as wheat and maize (‘cereals’); (c) cash crops such as sugarcane and cotton (‘sugar/cotton’); (d) perennial tree crops (‘Orchards); (e) ‘veg- etables’; and (f ) ‘fodder’. Rice, maize, and vegetables are widely cultivated crops for food and income, as they have high market potential in the region. Maize is the staple food crop in Africa, however rice is emerging among the fast-growing food crops in the continent [9], although there are problems with pathogens and pests on major food crops in the region [10]. However, water crises and scarcity, land degradation, and climate change now pose additional threats to agriculture. Enhancing food security and reducing rural poverty in EA has been a long-awaited goal of the Green Revolution [11]. Recently, there have been signs that an African Green Revolution has begun [12]. Three technological bases are essential to make the EA Green Revolution possible in the 21st Century, i.e., high-yielding varieties, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation [12]. Additionally, water resources and irrigation development are essential technological foundations to achieving food security in EA. Reliable water supplies are prerequisite for effective fertilizer application without which high-yielding potential seeds cannot be fully exploited. In the same context, water resource development, large or small irrigation schemes, and water management in the region have always been owned by government, farmer-led, or private sector organizations. Irrigation schemes were introduced in EA by colonial governments primarily to support export crop production. However, after independence, governments in EA have continued to develop irrigation schemes through donor funding [13]. The development and management of these schemes are driven by government political and social objectives, not well aligned with farmer interests even though much of the irrigated and rainfed agriculture in EA is conducted by smallholder farmers. Subsistence farming is characterized by rainfed smallholder agriculture; nearly all the crop cultivation is practiced and maintained by the farmer and immediate family, mainly for home consumption. Despite the rich endowment of freshwater resources, the irrigation sector remains poorly developed [14]. Addition- ally, large irrigation schemes in EA have failed to deliver as expected. An assessment of the performance of 79 irrigation schemes in Africa indicated that these consistently underperform [15]. The development of water resources, rice produc- tion, and water management is still low in EA due to several factors, including poor land consolidation, limited technical skills, high initial costs, weak institutional infrastructure, poor government policies, and poor access to profitable markets [16]. Lately, the frequency and intensity of climatic events such as droughts, heavy rainstorms and floods have intensified. Drought is the major contributor to water scarcity posing threats to livelihoods, crops, changes in traditional seasons, and degrading the natural environment [17, 18]. Furthermore, coastal regions of Kenya, Tanzania, and east-central Ethiopia are experiencing long-lasting droughts [19]. As a result of these climatic events, EA has continued to experience a vicious cycle of hunger and malnutrition, mostly in rural areas. With the steady population increase and industrial development in the region, most people, especially youth, are now shifting to urban areas in search of new opportunities, thus affecting agriculture production. With the cur- rent climatic changes, increasing population, industrial development, and demands for food and water remain core issues that cannot be tackled via a narrow sectoral approach. Therefore, water resources for rice cultivation must be effectively Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review managed to improve productivity and food security through climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies. Some of these technologies are being employed, including rainwater harvesting, improved rice varieties, training initiatives, and rehabilitation of irrigation schemes to enhance rice production [20]. Additionally drip irrigation, alternate wetting and drying (AWD), and system of rice intensification (SRI) are being introduced and practiced at the micro-research level representing promising initiatives for improving yields, however, farmers in EA have little knowledge of these technolo- gies [21, 22]. Although some of these CSA technologies are becoming recognized as sustainable water management solutions in paddy fields with climate change, their promotion and adoption in EA is still low, leaving smallholder farmers exposed to adverse effects of climate change [23]. Few reviews exist that assess water management for rice production as a key component of food security in EA. Cur- rent research and reports on this topic are of limited scope in the four selected vulnerable EA countries (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia) comprising the major rice producers in EA. Thus, to improve rice production for food security, our review aims to: (i) compile information on the climate of EA and smallholder irrigation agriculture development with emphasis on rice production systems, water polices, food security and food security strategies; (ii) present implica- tions of climate change (drought and rainfall variability) on food security; (iii) highlight the existing climate-smart water management practices for rice production and explain why drip irrigation, SRI and AWD technologies are less practiced by farmers for rice (upland and paddy) production in EA; and (iv) discuss future trajectories of water and rice production to enhance water management and build stable food security in the region. Therefore, this paper lays a foundation for planning and promoting climate-smart water management technologies and rice production that highly depend on farmer acceptance and appropriate policies to enhance the adoption of these technologies. 2 � Background and climate of East Africa For a long time, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya were referred to as EA, including recent reference to these nations based on climate [24]. Similarly, other authors have used the terminology "Greater Horn of Africa" (GHA) in a broader analysis of other sectors [25]. Currently, EA primarily comprises the following countries: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, South Sudan, Rwanda, and Burundi. In our review, we consider four major EA nations – Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia – because they are the major rice producers in the region (Fig. 1). These four countries occupy a total area of 2.88 million ha with 0.241, 0.583, 0.945, and 1.112 million ha, respectively, in rice production. East Africa lies within the tropical latitudes and climate varies from arid in the east to more humid conditions in the west. The distinction of climatic types is essential because most EA countries experience two rainfall seasons between March to May and September–November. Several factors influence rainfall and climate, including altitude, proximity to Fig. 1   Map of the four East African countries: Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z the warm Indian Ocean, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) migration, and location of dominant atmospheric high- and low-pressure systems [26]. Climate types are described as: 1) equatorial lying 5°N and 5°S of the equator; 2) moist tropical/modified equatorial in central and western Uganda and parts of northern Uganda [24]; 3) dry tropical in several parts of EA, e.g., semiarid regions in west Karamoja, southern Nyika plateau, and parts of western Tanzania; 4) semiarid and arid in northern Kenya, e.g. the Chalbi desert, northeastern Uganda; 5) montane/alpine proximate to mountain peaks of EA; and 6) tropical monsoon in coastal regions of EA. Additionally, the equator passes through Uganda and Kenya. Regions closer to the equator typically have two rainy seasons with rainfall peaks around April and October, particularly punctuated in the most arid areas [26]. 2.1 � Smallholder agricultural development in East Africa Traditional smallholder agriculture in EA is mainly rain-fed with low yields and susceptible to climate change. This has affected small-scale farmers that contribute to up to 90% of agricultural production [27, 28], rendering them vulnerable to a vicious cycle of poverty and food insecurity [29]. Nevertheless, agriculture remains the main contributor to employ- ment; a driver of economic growth, poverty reduction, and food security; and accounts for 25–35% of GDP among the four EA nations. However, the agriculture share of EA’s GDP has declined drastically since 1980 [30] from 47.2% to nearly 25% in 2001, although it is currently fluctuating within the region. Nevertheless, agriculture still accounts for about 75% of the labor force in all countries underscoring its importance in job creation and poverty reduction [27]. Given these statistics, the obvious question is, why does the region remain in this state of low production and poverty? To describe the smallholder agriculture sector, one needs to understand who the smallholder farmer is. Smallholder agriculture generally refers to rural producers, mostly in developing countries, who mainly rely on family labor within the farm as the primary source of income [31]. However, the definitions to scale are relative to regional and national contexts, and "smallholders" in developed countries may have farms (and incomes) many times larger than those in developing countries [32]. One of the challenges limiting smallholder rice farming is low productivity emerging from limited knowledge, access to markets, credit, and technology [27]. Recently, these externalities have been affected by volatile food and energy prices and the global financial crisis. In addition, rain-fed agricultural systems remain increasingly vulnerable to climate change disruptions, especially in EA of the Sub-Saharan region, where only 6% or less of agricultural lands are irrigated [31]. The major crops include cereals and grains (e.g., maize, rice, sorghum, finger millet), root crops, banana, tea, pyrethrum, sisal, cut flowers, coffee, cotton, and tobacco. Coffee, cotton, horticulture products, and tea are the main export crops. Despite the significant potential to enhance agricultural production, the role of smallholder agriculture in food security and support of smallholder farmers to increase crop productivity amidst climate change remain major obstacles. These require knowledge and technology transfer, training, and access to agricultural inputs, but also strengthening policies that enhance access to both input and output markets [27]. 2.2 � Irrigation development and rice production in East Africa Supplemental irrigation during dry periods for crop production has been used in EA. For example, spate irrigation in Kenya has been practiced for more than 500 years along River Tana and in Marakwet, Keiyo, West Pokot, and Baringo districts [34, 35]. Rice was irrigated along river valleys around Kipini, Malindi, Shimoni and Vanga in the early 19th Cen- tury. During the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway, some irrigation activities were undertaken by Asian rail workers between 1901 and 1905 near Kibwezi and Makindu [34, 35]. In the 1930s, crop production commenced in some swampy areas in central Kenya and cash crops such as coffee, pineapple, sisal, and lucerne were introduced. This foresaw the development of public irrigation schemes under government control, including in Mwea, Hola, Perkerra, Yatta and Ishiara in Kenya [34]. Similarly, smallholder irrigation in Uganda is believed to have started in the early 1900s from Acholi, northern Uganda, where water divisions from rivers and streams were stored in trenches and applied to crops when needed [36]. Rice planting in swampy areas started in eastern Uganda before World War II, while swamp reclamation commenced in 1943 in Kigezi, southwestern Uganda [37]. The establishment of public irrigation schemes began in 1948 when diversion structures and bunds for spate irrigation, river diversions, small dams, tanks, and windmills were constructed in northeast Uganda [31]. Additionally, the development of larger government irrigation schemes, such as the Odina, Kiige, Labori, Ongom, and Atera schemes started in the 1960s. Furthermore, several public and private smallholder schemes, such as Kakira sugar estate, Olweny, Kibimba, Doho, and Agoro, were established. Recently, the Ugandan government has Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review embarked on rehabilitation of irrigation schemes (e.g., Agoro and Olweny) to increase rice production and support the growing population [38]. Various crops are grown in these schemes using border, furrow, or sprinkler irrigation systems. Rehabilitation works were completed in 2013 in Mobuku, Doho, and Agoro public schemes [39]. Traditional irrigation systems are said to have been practiced in Tanzania hundreds of years ago characterized by temporary diversion weirs and natural canals to control water flow. The weirs washed away during heavy rains and were reconstructed after each rainy season causing extensive water losses from canals [40]. Traditional irrigation practices were mainly furrow and flood irrigation in semiarid parts of Tanzania in the 1920s [41]. However, in 1948, the Kilangali rice irrigation scheme (1000 ha) was established by the government in Morogoro Region, and more farmer-managed traditional smallholder schemes were established in the 1950s. Most irrigated areas and schemes in Tanzania use surface water; only 0.2% of irrigated areas use groundwater [42]. Evidence of past irrigation practices in Ethiopia is scarce. Formal irrigation on private farms using river diversions or motorized pumps in the Upper Awash valley is believed to have commenced in the 1950s to produce vegetables, horti- cultural crops, cotton, and sugarcane. This expanded to other parts of the Rift Valley region in the 1960s [43]. In the 1970s the Ethiopian government embarked on developing modern communal schemes using the diversion of streams and rivers with some employing micro-dams for water storage. Most irrigation in Ethiopia occurs in the Rift Valley, especially the Awash basin; by 2001, 62% of Ethiopia’s irrigated area was in the Rift Valley region, with 39% in the Awash basin [44]. Most of the irrigation in Ethiopia uses surface water transported to fields by gravity for application via furrow irrigation, similar to other EA nations. As a vital and increasingly popular crop in EA, rice is primarily grown by smallholder farmers using simple technolo- gies on small landholdings (average of 2 ha). Three rice ecosystem production schemes exist: (i) rain-fed lowland; (ii) irrigated low land/paddy; and (iii) upland production systems; most are rainfed, although drip irrigation is used at the micro-research scale in Uganda [22, 45]. While agricultural development in EA is predominantly smallholder, paddy and upland rice farming is expanding and the region has significantly increased rice production area and productivity in the past 20 years (Fig. 2) with most of the production in paddy. EA has abundant croplands and irrigation potential for expansion of rice production with Tanzania, the leader of rice area and production with > 1.5 million ha and 4.5 million tons of rice yield in 2020, > 85% of the total area and yields of the other three EA nations combined. The high production and development of the rice sub-sector in Tanzania is attributed to numerous factors including the availability of suit- able land for rice cultivation (21 million ha, half of all arable land); sufficient freshwater resources to support irrigation development; and increasing population and urbanization increasing food demand at local and regional levels [46]. Furthermore, EA has contributed > 10% of Africa’s total rice production in the last five years (Fig. 2). The introduction and expansion of rice production in suitable areas is among the options to achieve food security and self-sufficiency within the region. Despite the growing agricultural cropland and irrigation potential in the region, agriculture crop production is still low and food insecurity persists. Low crop production is attributed to several factors including climate change (e.g., droughts and rainfall variability) and limited knowledge related to climate change adaptation [18]. 2.3 � Characteristics of rice production systems Rice cultivation was introduced in EA by traders from Arabia and India approximately 2000 years ago. Crop production, especially paddy, has long been practiced in wetlands. Wetland farming in inland valleys has increased recently com- pared to farms in floodplains [47]. Swamps in EA highlands have been used for agricultural purposes [48], but their use increased dramatically after 2000 [49]. Additionally, small wetlands in Kenya and Tanzania cover about 12 million ha and are increasingly being converted for agricultural production and settlement [50]. Similar practices are occurring in other EA countries, such as Uganda, although there are limited guidelines for future protection or use, requiring systematic classification and characterization of wetlands. Most land units within EA wetlands are comprised of highlands and lowlands in semiarid, sub-humid, and humid zones, and occur on diverse base rock materials [50]. Although develop- ing irrigation and drainage in upland and lowland areas increases local food production and enhances rural income, it threatens vulnerable wetlands and the ecosystem services they provide to local inhabitants [51]. Many EA countries are becoming increasingly dependent on rice imports due to the recent rising gap between production and consumption [52]. Farmers cultivate various rice varieties, such as Nerica4, Supa, Kaiso, Nerica 1&10, Sindano, and Superica in Uganda, and Nerica A-6, NericaA-15, Hibire (IRGA370-38–1-1F-B1-1), and Hiddesa in Ethiopia [53]. Two prominent varieties are grown in Uganda (Nerica 4 for upland and Supa for lowland); in Kenya the main varieties are: MWUR 4, Dourado precoce, NERICA 4, NERICA 1, NERICA 10, NERICA 11, and NERICA 2 [54]. Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Despite increases in rice production and yields in EA (Fig. 2), water availability remains the primary limiting fac- tor in semiarid regions [55]. Limited irrigation development and water management knowledge lends agricultural systems vulnerable to rainfall variability and dry spells even during rainy seasons [56]. As such, production and yield from rainfed agricultural systems has been low; for upland rice, this is caused by uneven rain distribution across the production seasons in different areas [55]. Additionally, water availability, inefficient fertilizer use, and unsustain- able subsistence and continuous farming has depleted soil nutrients, contributing to declining yields [57]. Similarly, increases in drought response to temperature variations can limit rice production if these exceed optimum ranges that induce moisture deficits [58]. Rice, both paddy and rain-fed, has an optimum growing temperature of 25 °C, and temperature increases of 1 °C above this optimum can cause a 10% yield reduction [59]. Rice production remains a growing sector in EA. Nevertheless, several environmental concerns exist, including: (1) how to fit rice production into farming systems because most paddies are in wetlands; (2) negative impacts of chemical use and disease arising from fertilizer and agrochemical applications; (3) disposal of rice wastes; (4) indis- criminate clearing of forests and wetlands for rice production; and (5) greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., methane) from paddy fields [60]. Fig. 2   Comparative changes in total rice production from 2000 to 2020: a area (ha) and b production quantity (t) of the four East African countries—Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. Data source: [33] Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review 2.4 � Water resources, existing policies, and regulations in East Africa EA has ample water supplies with annual total renewable water resources (both surface and groundwater) esti- mated at 60, 122, 31, and 96 km3 for Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania, respectively [61]. On average, 76% of inventoried withdrawals in these nations are used for agriculture. However, agricultural water withdrawal as a percentage of total renewable water resources is only 0.45, 4, 7, and 5% for Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanza- nia, respectively [61]. Similarly, annual total renewable groundwater resources are estimated as 3.5, 20, 29 and 30 km3 for Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Tanzania, respectively [61]. Groundwater use for irrigation remains very low because of high well drilling costs, fluctuating and poorly accessible electricity in rural areas, and poor road infra- structure hindering market access [62]. Thus, an untapped potential exists to develop water resources for irrigation to increase irrigated land and agricultural productivity [63]. However, overuse and inefficient water management in paddy fields due to insufficient knowledge complicates regional water use. In addition, water use by individual farmers is not measured in irrigation schemes. Farmers in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania pay only a fixed fee to the water management association, which provides no incentive for conservation [64]. As such rice, as an emerging crop in EA, exerts challenges on sustainable water management [27]. Regional policy instruments focused on rice production convinced the governments in the region to join the Coalition for African Rice Development (CARD) in 2008, with the propose of doubling rice production in sub–Saha- ran Africa within 10 years and increasing food security and incomes of smallholders [65]. National ministries of water and environment led the creation of water-related policies to prioritize water and preside over other sectoral policies. However, other government ministries follow established policies, ignoring outside influences [66]. For example, water ministries may preclude agriculture ministries from imposing water tariffs and permits on farmers and irrigators, which could affect their water revenues. Demands for water quality and effluent standards set by environment and water ministries may be blocked by the health ministries. Information may not be disclosed to the public or to other ministries. These are a few obstacles that must be addressed. While Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Uganda have also made significant strides towards integrated water resource management, Kenya still leads in developing legislative and policy frameworks for this purpose [66]. Additionally, there are remain difficulties implementing policies, upholding laws, and monitoring, in the region. In EA, land use, possession, leveraging, and sales are established by the state or by custom, and rights may accrue to individuals, families, communities, or organizations [67]. Although the customary rules of land tenure are dominant in the region, these may or may not be recognized by the state [68]. This remains a major concern among smallholder farm- ers. Generally, the region faces key policy challenges in land tenure, water use, and enabling profitable irrigation. Additionally, irrigation schemes that have water user associations are often ineffective and lack basic institutions, such as business/operational plans [69]. 3 � Food security issues in East Africa EA is among the most food-insecure regions; although there has been great improvement in global agricultural produc- tivity and food security in recent years, EA has not followed this trend. Studies show that food insecurity has risen since 2014 manifested by the increasing food insecure population (Fig. 3) and the situation has worsened during the COVID- 19 pandemic. The region generally comprises one-third of the world’s undernourished population and is the only area where land and agricultural productivity has declined, especially among the smallholder farmers, during recent years [70] due to factors including declining soil fertility and precipitation variability. EA has significant untapped agricultural crop potential to achieve food self-sufficiency and increase food exports if it ceases to rely on food imports and instead intensifies farming activities [71]. Currently, more than 70 million people in the region are undernourished, includ- ing > 15% of the total population in Ethiopia and Tanzania and 10 and 14% in Uganda and Kenya, respectively (Fig. 3). The causes of food insecurity in the region are complex and multidimensional. These are linked to several factors: drought, environmental degradation, poverty, conflict, land fragmentation, declining soil fertility, poor access to basic social services, and inadequacy of public policies [72, 73]. Food supplies in many parts of the developing world are locally derived, with much of this produced by rain-fed agriculture [73]. Therefore, changes in rainfall and temperature directly affect food supplies, cause water shortages, and heat stress limits crop growth, development, and yields. Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z 3.1 � The food security‑population‑poverty Nexus Smallholder farmers, including herders and fishers, comprise the largest percentage of the region’s poor inhabit- ants [27]. Moreover, the largest segment includes those belonging to indigenous populations living in rural areas and surviving on subsistence farming. These farmers depend largely on rain-fed agriculture, which is susceptible to droughts, floods, and shifts in markets and prices. Hence, strategies to reduce rural poverty will largely rely on improved agricultural water management, as noted in Ethiopia [74]. The EA region has the largest number of extremely poor inhabitants, which nearly doubled between 2000 and 2015. The largest population increases are those living on $1.90 to $3.20 per day and continue to suffer from low consumption levels and limited access to education and essential infrastructure services. Additionally, the poverty situation in the region is exacerbated by concurrent issues, such as recent desert locust invasions, weather-related shocks in Kenya, civil conflicts in Ethiopia, and the refugee influx and weather extremes in Uganda [75]. The World Bank (2020) noted that the 2016/2017 drought in Uganda increased the poverty rate by 1.7% from levels in 2013 to 21.4% in 2016, and multidimensional poverty incidence was estimated at 60% in 2016 [76]. In Kenya, the proportion of people living below the poverty line was estimated at 36% in 2015/16, reaching 70% in rural areas [77]. Approxi- mately 1.3 million people in Kenya faced acute food insecurity and need assistance as of late 2019 [78]. The region is experiencing high population growth at the rate of 1.1 million people annually (Fig. 4), with most people living in rural areas. Many youths are now moving to cities in search of employment opportunities. Annual population growth projections vary from 1.089 to 4.767 million, and the population in Uganda is projected to surpass Kenya by 2050 (Fig. 4). These population increases exert pressure on water resources and increase food demands, therefore food imports. Agriculture remains integral to the future of EA’s industrialization, poverty reduction, employ- ment opportunities, and overall food security [79]. While food security is being affected by climate change, most importantly, it depends on economic growth, changes in trade flows, and food aid policies [80]. 3.2 � Climate change and food security Climate change is projected to increase temperature and precipitation variability, effectively decreasing the yields in the region whilst contributing to interannual uncertainty. Several failed rainy seasons attributed to climate change have decimated crops, contributing to a hunger crisis, and affecting food security [18, 54]. These conditions led to severe soil moisture deficits impacting agricultural and increasing wildfire hazards [19]. Additionally, about 70 million people are exposed to drought risk in EA. Climate change greatly contributes to the precipitation deficit which has Fig.3   Prevalence of food insecure population in East Africa from 2014 to 2021. Data Source: [33] Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review worsened since November 2021. The cumulative precipitation deficit from July 2020 to June 2022 compared to the reference period 1981 to 2020 is severe across large regions in EA [19]. The driest regions in southeastern Ethiopia and eastern Kenya have deficit values up to about 50% based on CHIRPS data and even higher (up to about 70%) based on ECMWF ERA5 reanalysis. Spatial patterns are similar between the two datasets with the main differences in northern Ethiopia, southern Uganda, and northern Tanzania (deficit for ERA5, surplus for CHIRPS). The magnitude of the deficit appears uniformly more severe for ERA5 data [19]. Whereas long-term precipitation predictions are uncertain, several studies show declining rainfall between March and June and rising sea-surface temperature along coastal EA [81, 82]. These temperature increases enhance con- vection over the tropical Indian Ocean causing dry air to descend over EA, suppressing convection since 1980 and decreasing precipitation. In addition, rising surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean are linked to greenhouse gas emissions [81–83], which will likely continue and warm the south-central Indian Ocean, prolonging the drought trend. This in turn will exacerbate water shortages, affecting rice production in EA [82). More drought events are being reported as confirmed by the Drought Indicator (CDI) and IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre-ICPAC (https://​droug​htwat​ch.​icpac.​net/​mapvi​ewer/) of EA, indicating drought stress related to rainfall deficits across large areas of south and east Ethiopia, Uganda, coastal regions of Kenya, and some areas in Tanzania. It is predicted that drought and precipitation deficits will persist for more than 5 years in most of EA [19]; this would cause declines in irrigated and rainfed crop production, especially rice, because it requires much water. 3.2.1 � Virtual water and water footprint from imports and exports Considering the large quantity of fresh water required for rice production and rice trade in EA with other regions, exporting countries are trading water that is virtually embedded in exported products. This water that is embodied in the production and trade of rice is referred to as ’virtual water’ (VW) [84]. Additionally, water footprint (WF), a closely linked concept to VW, is an indicator of water use for all goods and services consumed per capita or on a national basis [85]. VW is a multidimensional indicator that specifies the volume of water consumed, water sources, and pol- lutants, and is composed of three components: green, blue, and grey water footprints [86]. Rice import and export data for 10 years obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) database [33], shows that EA imports a substantial amount of rice (> 500,000 tons annually) from Asia valued at approximately USD 500 million according to the Eastern African Grain Council (EAGC) [87]. Import and export statistics (Table 1) indicate that Tanzania is the largest producer and consumer of rice among the four EA countries with an annual consumption of 2,048,000 MT, followed by Kenya (370,000 MT), and Uganda (350,000 MT) [87]. Rice import among the four selected countries has increased significantly since 2011 (Table 1), attributed to low domestic rice production and growing populations. Therefore, several interventions are required to increase domestic rice production to substitute imports amidst the climate change? Fig. 4   Population growth projections and estimates of East Africa: Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania, from 2000–2050. Data source: [33] 0 50,000 1,00,000 1,50,000 2,00,000 2,50,000 Po pu la tio n (1 00 0 pe rs on s) Years Uganda Kenya Ethiopia Tanzania https://droughtwatch.icpac.net/mapviewer/ Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z 3.2.2 � Civil unrest, migration and covid‑19 Ongoing civil unrest in the region influences migration. This combined with the lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted food security. Food insecurity can both be a cause and a consequence of civil unrest and can fuel and drive conflict. Uganda has experienced migration and refugee influxes because of sporadic conflicts during the past decade and ongoing civil unrest in Democratic Republic of Congo and South Sudan neighboring countries. Civil unrest, widespread poverty, and food insecurity create vulnerable populations and low coping capacity in addition to the impacts of droughts and floods [19]. Additionally, recent internal conflicts in Ethiopia have disrupted agricultural food production systems, reducing access to food and income [88]. What will happen with population increases and climate change exacerbating these harsh conditions? With the recent unprecedented drought and the continuous civil conflicts within the region, particularly in Ethiopia, an estimated 1.5 million refu- gees are residing in rural and urban areas within and outside the country [89]. As such, the region continues to face a humanitarian crisis and migration is prevalent in areas most affected by changing climate. Besides climate change, conflicts are the second most significant risk to food security and drivers of migration [90]. The impacts of conflict can be both direct and indirect, such as inflation, disruption of social networks and markets, forced population movements, and the devastation of food supplies and productive assets. Further, food insecurity, high food prices, and competition for available resources lead to feelings of injustice and rage. Migration has been attributed to five drivers: political, economic, social, demographic, and environmental [91]. The drivers comprise push and pull factors; push factors relate to source areas, while pull factors relate to destinations [92]. Education generally increases migration ability and aspiration, but the pre-existing cultural and social ties shape the destination [93]. In most cases, migration improves food security of urban and rural populations that rely on aid [94]. The most debatable question is the food security of migrants who sacrifice their living by providing remit- tances or adapt through poor nutrition habits [95]. The onset of COVID-19 in 2020 exacerbated economic and agricultural supply chain shocks, contributing to low production and damages due to border lockdowns and travel restrictions [96]. In the wake of COVID-19, civil conflicts, migration, and climate change in EA there is a need to design robust strategies that respond to the multi- layered food crisis. Such measures can stabilize crop production (e.g., rice, wheat), improve supplies, and progress towards a long-term sustainable and resilient agri-food system. Table 1   Comparative rice export and imports of East African countries during a 10-yr period Data source: [33] Country Item Category 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Ethiopia Export (Tons) 0 8 30 240 1 3 0 0 72 0 Export (1000$) 0 4 15 11 1 2 0 0 22 0 Import (Tons) 41,356 92,567 116,958 139,789 204,524 221,466 231,582 388,793 285,476 70,769 Import (1000$) 25,275 50,912 72,000 88,172 138,066 124,875 127,650 184,345 114,115 34,494 Kenya Export (Tons) 621 923 520 89 43 13 108 350 496 134 Export (1000$) 521 500 595 93 51 11 61 712 97 69 Import (Tons) 283,017 437,744 374,562 595,970 490,000 650,000 585,360 582,404 600,502 582,130 Import (1000$) 156,408 200,559 146,344 300,007 187,884 228,279 243,779 245,594 242,398 240,306 Uganda Export (Tons) 17,592 22,146 31,183 16,775 16,981 8998 12,197 5189 18,852 21,206 Export (1000$) 8548 13,385 17,733 7983 7096 4051 6794 2766 9887 11,148 Import (Tons) 44,123 45,106 52,114 65,385 27,732 31,714 33,175 49,257 75,396 237,767 Import (1000$) 16,979 20,878 25,237 26,750 11,399 12,044 18,748 18,970 35,984 83,812 Tanzania Export (Tons) 24,983 5836 21,283 8837 964 1069 243 15,518 69,695 299,688 Export (1000$) 10,764 2326 10,159 2551 332 308 75 2491 32,207 128,100 Import (Tons) 50,300 170,190 229,600 3513 25,559 742 857 1553 83 347 Import (1000$) 23,800 87,200 113,000 1534 8139 597 477 1068 19 156 Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review 3.2.3 � Gender and rice production for food security Women continue to face barriers to access productive resources, economic opportunities, and participation in decision- making processes in many parts of the world including EA. Female farmers face several constraints in accessing agricul- tural inputs, services, and markets that impose barriers on relying on agriculture as a pathway out of poverty [97]. Farming systems have evolved and are affected by social norms that determine how production and consumption are organized. Men, women, and children are involved in rice production at various levels. Men are mainly engaged in land preparation (ploughing, rotavating, levelling) and transportation, whereas women and children engage in planting, weeding, bird deterrent activities, harvesting, threshing, and drying [98]. The low level of adoption of agricultural technologies has been associated with such gender-related issues in EA. 4 � The past and current food security strategies Studies have highlighted different approaches to address the overall challenge of food insecurity and strategies to evaluate multiple stressors affected by climate change [99]. These include multidisciplinary perspectives at different analytical levels holistically that display the magnitude of the problem and elucidate potential pathways for solving aspects of the crisis [100]. 4.1 � Diversified employment and income opportunities Broadening the household economic base is vital to reducing food insecurity and vulnerability in arid and semi-arid areas of EA [101]. Integrated production of short-cycle livestock, such as poultry, sheep, goats, and pigs provide organic inputs for crop production, reduce production costs, and increase the efficiency of farm outputs [90]. Additionally, enhancing processing of agricultural products such as milk, meat, and hides can supplement household income. Other options for raising additional earnings in arid areas of EA include collecting non-wood forest products, such as gums and resins [101]. 4.2 � Affordable gravity‑fed irrigation and on‑site farmer training Smallholder gravity-fed irrigation systems may become increasingly popular in the face of climate change in EA. These efficient, low-cost technologies improve food security, farm incomes, and facilitate expansion of smallholder irrigation [102]. Decreasing costs of irrigation components such as solar kits, treadle pumps, drip kits, and small, motorized pumps are now available through dealers and promoted by several NGOs and community-based organizations. Recently, the Uganda government, supported by the Africa Development Bank and World Bank, funded the acquisition of raw materials and facilitated knowledge transfer to adopt sustainable irrigation practices [103]. Similar support has reduced poverty levels among agricultural households of Ethiopia by 22% [74]. 4.3 � Climate‑smart water management technologies for rice production Several factors threaten rice productivity in EA prompting studies to improve water technologies to increase rice yield in inland valleys and upland areas. Supplemental irrigation and soil conservation practices such as mulching for upland cultivation are being implemented at small scales [104]. Supplemental irrigation during dry spells of erratic rainy seasons can enhance rice productivity. In Uganda, 20 mm of supplemental sprinkler irrigation every five days during dry windows starting from the rice panicle initiation stage increased yields by 37%, fertilizer use efficiency by 54%, and profitability of rice cultivation by 32% [105]. Of the water conservation approaches advocated to enhance rice production and save water, alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation is the most promising method [23]. This and other water conservation methods are summarized in Table 2. However, little research and innovative practices have been applied in the region related to climate and optimal water use; agronomic and economic performance; and determinants of climate-smart water management adoption for paddy and upland rice production [106]. Water conservation is an important component of water management, and many studies have described factors affecting the adoption of soil water conservation measures (SWC). The dimensions of farms and land ownership are important components associated with adopting conservation measures, especially for upland rice cultivation in the region. For example, research on social and economic factors affecting the adoption of SWC practices in the western Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Ta bl e  2   S um m ar y of w at er c on se rv at io n an d m an ag em en t t ec hn ol og ie s fo r r ic e pr od uc tio n in E as t A fr ic a Te ch no lo gi es Fe at ur es A pp lic at io ns Re fe re nc es Co nt ou r b un ds a nd w at er re te nt io n di ke s Sm al l d ik es a ro un d th e ric e fie ld . S m al l d ik es m ad e of s oi l m at er ia l b ui lt in th e va lle y bo tt om fo llo w - in g co nt ou r l in es . D ik es c on st ru ct ed p er pe nd ic ul ar ly a cr os s th e va lle y bo tt om Pa dd y, u pl an d Fi gu re  5 Su pp le m en ta l i rr ig at io n Ad di tio n of li m ite d am ou nt s of w at er to im pr ov e an d st ab ili ze y ie ld s of ra in -fe d cr op s w he n ra in fa ll fa ils to p ro vi de s uffi ci en t m oi st ur e fo r n or m al p la nt g ro w th Ra in -fe d, U pl an d [1 05 , 1 06 ] Co ns er va tio n ag ric ul tu re , l im ite d til la ge , z er o til la ge Re du ce d or n o- til la ge o f t he s oi l i n th e fie ld o r m ul ch o f c ro p re si du es a nd d iv er si fie d cr op ro ta tio n U pl an d [4 6, 1 07 ] Sy st em o f r ic e in te ns ifi ca tio n Cu lti va tin g ric e w ith o rg an ic m an ur e if po ss ib le , s ta rt in g w ith y ou ng s ee dl in gs p la nt ed a nd w id el y sp ac ed in a s qu ar e pa tt er n, in cl ud in g al te rn at e w et tin g an d irr ig at io n Pa dd y [2 1, 1 08 –1 10 ] A lte rn at e w et tin g an d dr yi ng ir rig at io n (A W D ) U se o f fi el d w at er tu be s (p ie zo m et er s) o r t en si om et er s to m on ito r w at er le ve ls in ri ce fi el ds a nd irr ig at e w he n so il w at er d ro ps b el ow a th re sh ol d or a s oi l p ot en tia l Pa dd y [1 09 , 1 11 ] Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review Uzambara Mountains of Tanzania indicates that age, gender (especially women), educational status of the heads of families, and land ownership have significant positive effects [112]. Alternatively, challenges associated with adopting SWC measures are attributed to the lack of farmer awareness of soil erosion and poor understanding of financial benefits from SWC measures [112]. Continuous flooding irrigation coupled with fertilizer application regimes is a traditional practice in paddy fields in the region. Continuous flooding enhances sufficient water and weed management by maintaining anaerobic conditions in the root zone, but such anaerobic conditions in soil during long durations of ponded water produce substantial CH4 emissions [113]. Climate-smart approaches including systems of rice intensification (SRI), intermittent drainage, and AWD irrigation practice are being examined at experimental scales to promote sustainable water management and mitigate GHG emis- sions in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda [21, 113]. Results indicate that the interaction of rice intensification and nitrogen application significantly decrease CH4 and CO2 emissions in paddy fields [113], while traditional practices contribute to higher global warming potential (GWP) via GHG emissions. SRI reduced GWP, CH4, and CO2 by 57, 59, and 25%, respec- tively, compared to traditional continuous flooding [113]. Similar research from Mwea, central Kenya suggests that AWD is the best option for reducing GHG and increasing irrigation efficiency [114]. However, several reasons are attributed to why these climate-smart technologies (e.g., AWD, SRI and drip irrigation) are less practiced by smallholder farmers and only employed in small-scale experimental studies, particularly in Tanzania [109]. These reasons include limited knowledge of the use of technologies, farming experience, and limited information and awareness of climate-smart technologies among other factors [23, 115]. Additionally, the major concern related to most studies in EA is that they focus on single sites within a specific country. Research findings from these small-scale trials only involve a few farmers to access these climate-smart technologies, creating upscaling issues in the region [21]. 5 � Conclusion and future perspectives Herein, key scientific literature and reports on smallholder irrigation agriculture are synthesized emphasizing rice pro- duction systems, polices, food security, and related strategies within the context of climate change in four EA countries (Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia). Smallholder agriculture and rice production in the region is underperforming due to several factors including over-reliance on rain-fed production, poor water management systems, and land frag- mentation. The major water-related challenges in rice production environments in the region are summarized in Table 3. While the role of smallholder agriculture in food security is less emphasized, several aspects should be considered for future research to assist in formulating potential coping measures and help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change, improve rice productivity, and support food security. Research on the effects of climate-smart water management practices (AWD, SRI, and drip irrigation) on agricultural soil water dynamics, hydraulic properties, GHG emissions, and carbon dynamics in paddy and upland rice fields in EA is scarce. Because our review focused on factors contributing to food insecurity in four EA countries, other areas may differ due to poor coverage in the literature. Some of the stressors explored include climate change, migration, civil unrest, population growth, and diminishing land holdings. Future research on food security should consider other factors, such as poor infrastructure development, poor post-harvest handling, limited market access, and corruption, to develop a more detailed analysis of food security in the region. We therefore provide several suggestions to build robust water management systems for rice production and food security in EA. Fig. 5   Rice management at the micro-research scale in Uganda: (a) contour bunds; (b) paddocks at NaCRRI, Namulonge; (c) SRI in paddy fields; and (d) drip irrigation for upland rice, Busitema Uni. Photos by Denis Bwire, 2023 and [22] Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Ta bl e  3   S um m ar y of th e m aj or w at er -r el at ed c ha lle ng es o f r ic e pr od uc tio n en vi ro nm en ts in E A M aj or c on st ra in ts Ca us es o f t he c on st ra in ts Re se ar ch m et ho d Co un tr ie s Ri ce -g ro w in g en vi ro nm en t Re fe re nc es D ro ug ht s an d Fl oo di ng Lo w w at er -h ol di ng ca pa ci ty s oi l, po or d ra in ag e an d ex te nd ed c lim at e st re ss ; p oo r r ai nf al l di st rib ut io n, lo w ra in fa ll co m bi ne d w ith in cr ea se s in a ir te m pe ra tu re M ap pi ng a nd c ro p m od el lin g, Re vi ew U ga nd a, Et hi op ia , Ke ny a, Ta nz an ia Pa dd y, a nd u pl an d [1 7, 1 8, 1 26 , 1 27 ] Po or la nd p la nn in g an d irr ig at io n de si gn s, W at er sc ar ci ty U nr el ia bl e w at er s up pl y, lo w ra in fa ll di st rib ut io n Fi el d su rv ey s, in te rv ie w s, en vi ro nm en ta l m od el lin g U ga nd a, Ke ny a, Et hi op ia Pa dd y [1 9] Iro n to xi ci ty , S oi l s al in ity El ev at ed ir on a nd s od iu m c on ce nt ra tio ns in s oi l M ap pi ng A fr ic a N A [1 27 ] Vol.:(0123456789) Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Review While food security in EA is vulnerable since smallholder agriculture is rain-fed and susceptible to climate change, the region has a huge untapped potential that requires integrated applied research and innovations in water resources, soil water management, and irrigation development. Considering the vulnerability of the region to cli- mate variability and climate extremes, such as floods and temperature increases [17, 18, 116], detailed assessments of climate variability are required at local and regional scales, in addition to access to existing data to sustainably develop agricultural water resources. Limited climate observations and gaps typify ground-based meteorological data in most of EA [117]. Therefore, a combination of available datasets from National Meteorological Agencies and remotely sensed data for sparsely covered areas must be considered. Additionally, data from reanalysis products with high accuracy (compared with ground station data) that cover large areas can be useful [117]. Furthermore, early warning systems such as drought triggering for Anticipatory Action (AA) that use weather forecasts along with risk data to identify and implement timely mitigation actions to cope with impending drought hold promise for sup- porting agriculture in developing nations [118]. Mitigating water stress and expanding irrigation requires developing alternative water sources through comprehensive water harvesting and storage plans at national levels. Clearly, water scarcity is a major constraint for rice production where rainfall conditions vary. Additionally, the lack of collective action on maintenance of irrigation infrastructures, declining water in reservoirs following prolonged droughts, and unreliable water supplies result in low and variable yields. The concept of water harvesting is complex and includes all methods for collecting and storing surface runoff from different sources for domestic or agricultural use [119]. Water harvesting and storage at national levels can potentially increase rainwater-fed upland rice production, thus supporting rural livelihoods [120, 121]. Similarly, runoff storage facilities such as reservoirs, ponds, and tanks are simple to construct and easily managed by groups of farmers [122]. Nevertheless, due attention needs to be given to the potential for water harvesting to impact downstream access to water and environ- mental flows [123], an assessment closely aligned with the concept of cumulative watershed effects [124]. The four EA nations have high potential for irrigated agriculture and expansion considering both land and water resources. Improving irrigation designs and development of large and smallholder irrigation schemes can contribute to increases in agricultural production, resilience to climate change and variability, and enhance rural economic growth [38, 125]. Generally, these countries have ample untapped water resources, albeit unevenly distributed. Water scarcity and moisture deficits due to droughts are major drivers for low rice yields. However, most of the large-irrigation and government-owned schemes have under-performed due to poor water governance, land tenure policies, mismanage- ment practices, market functioning, limited crop diversification opportunities, and access to credit. While managing water sources and irrigation schemes is important for improving rice productivity, most schemes in EA do not have functional irrigation infrastructure and proper water abstractions, conveyance, distribution, application structures, and canals are absent or dilapidated. Additionally, the absence of control structures such as gates makes systems inefficient, leading to water flow in fields regardless of need. Water is also lost through numerous cracks in deteriorating canals [51]. Improv- ing irrigation structural design and integration of AWD techniques can contribute to sustainable water management in paddy fields and improve water and crop productivity [38]. Although long-term research is needed to assess how AWD affects soil hydraulic properties, soil fertility, soil salinity, carbon dynamics, GHG emissions, and weed infestation in EA, it is necessary to develop incentives for adoption of such water-saving technologies by smallholder farmers and integrate them into irrigation schemes [23]. Improving information communication technologies (ICT) and building integrated, comprehensive data platforms for smallholder farmers are other avenues to enhance productivity in EA. Our synthesis indicates that high-quality data are limited, and most data sets are not up to date (e.g., on current irrigation expansion and yield statistics), presenting huge temporal data gaps. Integrated data can support the use of weather and agricultural information at household levels, such as farmer-to-farmer exchanges, farmer field schools, and via mobile phones. Additionally, farmers can access information and guidance on field agronomic practices including on-field planning, water management techniques, and optimal application of agricultural inputs, to improve crop productivity. Acknowledgements  The authors sincerely thank the Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT), Institute of Global Innovation Research (GIR), and MEXT Japan for their support. Author contributions  Literature search and collection, manuscripts structuring, original draft preparation—writing, proofreading, and editing: D.B., H.S. R.C.S; proofreading and editing, M.M. Funding  No external funding. Data availability  No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. Vol:.(1234567890) Review Discover Water (2025) 5:7 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00196-z Declarations  Competing interests  There is no conflict of interest among the authors. Open Access  This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. 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