Cogent Education ISSN: 2331-186X (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/oaed20 Roles of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in Lango secondary schools, Uganda Odit Emmanuel & Sashapra Chakrawarty To cite this article: Odit Emmanuel & Sashapra Chakrawarty (2026) Roles of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in Lango secondary schools, Uganda, Cogent Education, 13:1, 2610039, DOI: 10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published online: 31 Dec 2025. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 135 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaed20 https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/oaed20?src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=oaed20&show=instructions&src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorSubmission?journalCode=oaed20&show=instructions&src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039?src=pdf https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039?src=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039&domain=pdf&date_stamp=31%20Dec%202025 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039&domain=pdf&date_stamp=31%20Dec%202025 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaed20 CURRICULUM & TEACHING STUDIES | RESEARCH ARTICLE Roles of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in Lango secondary schools, Uganda Odit Emmanuela,b and Sashapra Chakrawartyb aDepartment of Professional studies, Faculty of Education, Lira University, Lira, Uganda; bDepartment of Education, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India ABSTRACT This study examined the influence of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in implementing the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in secondary schools in Uganda’s Lango sub-region. Grounded in Goal Path Theory and Gross’s Theory of Curriculum Implementation, the study employed a quantitative cor- relational research design to determine the relationship between administrative super- vision and teachers’ competence. A sample of thirty-seven secondary schools, comprising public and private institutions, was selected using stratified random sam- pling techniques. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire based on a five-point Likert scale and analysed using SPSS version 27. The results revealed a strong, positive, and statistically significant relationship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in CBC implementation (r ¼ .857, p< .001). Regression analysis indicated that improvements in administrative supervi- sion significantly predicted increases in teachers’ competence, with the model explain- ing 73.4 percent of the variance in competence levels (R2 ¼ .734). The study contributes novel empirical evidence from a developing-country context by demon- strating that administrative supervision functions not only as an evaluative mechanism but also as a transformative tool that enhances teacher competence and supports effective CBC implementation. It emphasizes sustained, structured supervision as a critical lever for improving curriculum implementation outcomes nationally. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 15 July 2025 Revised 30 October 2025 Accepted 22 December 2025 KEYWORDS School administrators; support supervision; teachers ‘competence; competency based curriculum; Lango subregion; Northern Uganda SUBJECTS Social Sciences; Education; Classroom Practice; Assessment & Testing; Social Sciences; Education; Classroom Practice; Social Sciences; Education; Classroom Practice; Teaching & Learning Introduction Education is a tool for national development, and no country can rise beyond her education system (Gandhi, 2025). A well-designed quality education system is a necessity for achieving every nation’s long-term goal, especially if its educational curriculum is effectively implemented (Ambasz et al., 2022). In Uganda, attempts have been made by the government through the Ministry of Education and Sports to improve the quality and standard of education at the secondary school level (Adipala & Ekimwere, 2023). The most noticeable ones were the introduction of the Support Supervision Initiative and the competency-based curriculum (CBC) in secondary schools. The Ministry of Education and Sports (MOES) established the support supervision initiative under the central management of the Directorate of Education Standards (DES) in 2008 with the aim of supporting teachers through bridging their know- ledge gap to improve their pedagogical practices and standards of education (Bagaya et al., 2025). The support supervision structure was later decentralized to the district level under the control of the District Education Officer (DEO) and at the school level under the management of school administrators (Benson et al., 2024). At the school level, school administrators are expected to supervise and support the teachers at the time of their preparation for teaching, during teaching, and after teaching to bridge CONTACT Odit Emmanuel oditemma@gmail.com Department of Professional studies, Faculty of Education, Lira University, Uganda � 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. COGENT EDUCATION 2026, VOL. 13, NO. 1, 2610039 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2025-12-30 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2593-6927 http://orcid.org/0009-0008-2147-5642 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2610039 http://www.tandfonline.com the teachers’ classroom knowledge practices and improve their teaching practices (Catherine & Andala, 2024). The introduction of competency-based curriculum was another significant strategy to improve the quality of education at the secondary school level, with the curriculum focusing on holistic development of the learners through building the learners’ competences and introducing learners to the world of work. The role of teachers in the implementation of this curriculum is to facilitate learning processes, prepare schemes of work and lesson plans, use recommended teaching methodologies and technolo- gies, set a good learning environment, and conduct, submit, and keep records of assessments (Namubiru et al., 2024). Despite these support supervision initiatives, studies have shown that the major- ity of teachers in Uganda were struggling in lesson planning, content delivery, ICT integration, and using traditional methodologies in place of CBC learner-centered methodologies (Wambi et al., 2024). This not only undermines the existing teacher support supervision structures at the secondary school level but also raises concerns about the effectiveness of school-level administrative support supervision. Besides, there is limited empirical evidence on how school administrative support supervision specifically influen- ces teachers’ competence in CBC implementation at the secondary school level in Uganda. Most existing studies have either concentrated on general supervision practices or teacher perceptions, without sys- tematically linking administrative supervision roles to measurable teacher competences in CBC delivery (Catherine & Andala, 2024; Evans, 2022; Wasukira, 2023). This study therefore addresses this gap by empirically examining the role of school administrative support supervision in enhancing teachers’ com- petences in CBC implementation in secondary schools of the Lango sub-region, Uganda. The study find- ings and recommendations are expected to inform both policy and practice on how best to structure administrative supervision to foster effective implementation of the competency-based curriculum to enhance the achievement of the aims and objectives of introducing the CBC in Ugandan secondary education. Research objective To assess the role of school administrative support supervision on enhancing teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum among secondary schools in the Lango sub-region. Hypothesis H0: school administrative support supervision has no significant influence on enhancing teachers’ compe- tence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum among secondary schools in the Lango sub-region. Theoretical framework This study was grounded on two theories Path-Goal theory The path-goal theory suggests that the leader’s main objective is to provide guidance, support, and help necessary for subordinates to achieve their own goals effectively besides the organizational goals (Fabac et al., 2022). The theory asserts that a leader complements their employees and should compensate them for their shortcomings by providing a clear path to follow and removing pitfalls and obstacles (Dare & Saleem, 2022). This implies that it is the duty of school administrators, as the immediate supervi- sors of teachers, to complement and support teachers in implementing the competency-based curricu- lum through routine supervision and professional guidance. Specifically, the Path-Goal theory underpins the expectation that when school administrators provide clear direction, continuous feedback, and motivation through supervision, teachers are more likely to grow the necessary competence to effect- ively implement the CBC. Therefore, this theory informs the hypothesis that administrative support supervision has a direct positive relationship with teachers’ competence, since leadership guidance reduces uncertainties and strengthens teachers’ instructional practices. 2 O. EMMANUEL AND S. CHAKRAWARTY Gross theory of curriculum implementation Gross’ theory of curriculum implementation states that the successful implementation of any curriculum innovation relies on four key factors: the clarity of the innovation and awareness among the implement- ers, the capability of the implementer, the availability of resources, and management support (Nteziyaremye et al., 2024). This theory is important for examining the role of school administrators, who guide and support teachers as CBC implementers. Gross’ theory clarifies how supervision contributes to curriculum implementation by ensuring that teachers understand the objectives of CBC (clarity), are sup- ported through professional development (capability), are facilitated with adequate teaching-learning resources (availability of resources), and receive consistent backing from administrators (management support). In this study, therefore, the theory explains why schools with strong administrative supervision are projected to have teachers who demonstrate higher competence in CBC implementation. The inte- gration of Path-Goal theory and Gross’ theory of curriculum implementation is very relevant in this study. Whereas Path-Goal theory highlights the role of administrative leadership in guiding, motivating, and reducing uncertainties for teachers, Gross’ theory focuses on the structural and contextual condi- tions that determine curriculum implementation success. When combined, the two theories complement each other by linking leadership behavior with systemic factors such as clarity, capability, resources, and support. Thus, administrative supervision is conceptualized not only as providing direction and motiv- ation but also as ensuring that teachers are equipped with the necessary conditions to implement the competency-based curriculum effectively. These two theories enhance coherence and provide a holistic understanding of how school administrative support supervision influences teachers’ competence in CBC implementation. Literature review Competency-based curriculum reforms have become central to educational transformation in many countries, yet their success often depends on teachers’ competence and the support systems within schools. In Uganda, CBC was introduced to promote learner-centered approaches and practical skills for the 21st century, but its implementation has faced persistent challenges related to teacher preparedness and administrative supervision (Betty et al., 2025; Kidega et al., 2024; 2024). A regional synthesis indi- cates that contextual realities strongly influence implementation. Christopher and Jones (2025), in their meta-narrative review of South and Eastern Africa, found convergence in the recognition of teachers as key actors in CBC but divergence in the supervisory frameworks and resource mobilization that either enabled or constrained its success. This aligns with Ugandan evidence showing that weak school-based supervision limits teachers’ ability to effectively apply the new curriculum (Mulinge, 2024). Beyond Africa, Islam et al. (2025) reported similar challenges in Bangladesh, where teachers endorsed the phil- osophy of CBC but struggled to adapt due to limited training and inconsistent oversight. This suggests that across different contexts, professional development and administrative support mechanisms fre- quently lag behind curricular reforms, undermining teacher competence. Technology also shapes CBC delivery. F€ul€op and Cifuentes-Faura (2025) demonstrated that digital approaches enhance instructional adaptability and learner satisfaction in entrepreneurship training. However, Ugandan studies show uneven ICT integration, particularly in public schools, underscoring the importance of school leadership in bridging digital divides (Kagambe et al., 2024). Evidence further suggests disparities between public and private schools. While private schools tend to provide more structured supervision and mentorship, public schools often face bureaucratic and resource-related constraints (Arcadio et al., 2025). This diver- gence highlights that administrative support is not peripheral but central to teachers’ capacity to enact CBC effectively. Taken together, these studies converge on the importance of teachers’ competence and supervisory support for CBC, while diverging in the institutional structures and resources that sustain them. This study contributes by situating Uganda’s Lango sub-region within both regional and global debates, examining how administrative supervision influences teacher competence in CBC implementation. COGENT EDUCATION 3 Research methods and materials This study adapted a quantitative correlational research design in order to examine the relationship between the study variables: school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in secondary schools of Lango Sub-Region, Northern Uganda. This design was chosen because it allows for statistical measurement of the relationship between the two variables (Thomas & Zubkov, 2023). The study population consisted of 74 secondary schools (45 public and 29 private) distributed across the eight districts in the Lango sub-region. A total sample of 37 schools (50%) of the total number of schools were selected using stratified random sam- pling in order to ensure representation of both public (23) and private schools (14) (Mweshi & Sakyi, 2020. Within these schools, a total of 308 teachers were sampled using a combination of purposive and proportionate random sampling based on the school type. Data collection was done using a self- constructed structured questionnaire on a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire development followed a systematic procedure. Firstly, the researcher generated an initial pool of items derived from the study objectives, research questions, and an extensive review of literature on school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in competency-based curriculum implementation. Secondly, the items were carefully structured on a 5-point Likert scale to capture varying levels of agreement. Thirdly, the draft questionnaire was subjected to content validation by three independent experts in educational administration, curriculum studies, and educational measurement. These experts examined the items based on their relevance, clarity, coverage of the constructs, and appropriateness of wording to the study objective. Based on their feedback, some items were reviewed and refined, and others eliminated to strengthen the instrument. Fourthly, a pilot test was conducted with a small sample of teachers not included in the main study. The purpose of the pilot was to assess the comprehensibility of the items, identify ambiguity in wording, and ensure logical flow of the questionnaire. Lastly, after incorporating the pilot results, the questionnaire was finalized and used for data collection (Table 1). The expert review ensured content validity of the instruments, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for all scales appearing above 0.7 (Flake et al., 2022). The high Cronbach’s alpha coefficient confirmed internal consistency, dem- onstrating that the items measured the intended constructs reliably across respondents. The instruments were self-administered to the selected participants in the selected schools. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science version 27, and output was realized. Results Demographic characteristics A total of 308 respondents were drawn from secondary schools in the Lango sub-region (Table 2). The participants’ distribution based on various demographic variables is described below: In the distribution by gender, the sample comprised 63.6% male teachers (n¼ 196) and 36.4% female teachers (n¼ 112). This indicates a higher representation of males in the teaching workforce. This gender imbalance sug- gests that the perspectives captured in the study may be more reflective of male teachers’ experiences, which could have implications for understanding the inclusivity of CBC implementation. Based on the age bracket, the largest age group was 45–54 years, accounting for 30.2% (n¼ 93) of the participants. This was followed by both the 25–34-year-old and 35–44-year-old age groups, respectively, with each representing 21.4% (n¼ 66). The respondents aged below 25 years formed 15.9% (n¼ 49), while those aged above 55 years constituted 11.0% (n¼ 34). This distribution implies that many teachers are in their mid-to-late career stages, which may enhance CBC implementation through experience, though younger teachers might contribute innovative practices. For teaching experience, a substantial proportion of the teachers had 3–5 years (33.8%) and 6–10 years (33.4%) of teaching experience, suggesting that the major- ity of teachers had less than a decade in the teaching profession. Participants with more than 10 years of experience made up 22.1%, while only 10.7% had less than 3 years of experience. This indicates that most respondents are relatively new in service, which could influence their adaptability to CBC reforms, while the smaller group of highly experienced teachers may provide stability and mentorship. In terms of academic qualification, 49.4% (n¼ 152) of the respondents held diploma qualifications, followed by bachelor’s degree holders at 43.5% (n¼ 134). A smaller portion of the respondents had a master’s degree 4 O. EMMANUEL AND S. CHAKRAWARTY (6.5%), and only 0.6% (n¼ 2) of the respondents had a PhD qualification. This is an indication that most teachers were mid-level trained professionals, with few having postgraduate qualifications. This qualifica- tion profile suggests that while most teachers possess sufficient academic preparation to handle CBC, limited advanced training may constrain deeper pedagogical innovation and research-informed practices. A total of 308 respondents were drawn from secondary schools in the Lango sub-region. This relatively balanced distribution ensures that the study captures experiences from both sectors, allowing Table 1. Sample tool for data collection. School administrative support supervision, scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree, 2 ¼ disagree, 3 ¼ neutral, 4 ¼ agree, 5 ¼ strongly agree) 1 2 3 4 5 School administration regularly supervises my lesson planning and preparation. I always receive timely feedback from school administrators after classroom observations. Administrative supervision and support help me improve my instructional practices. Supervision sessions by our administrators focuses on improving learner-centered teaching strategies. There is a clear and consistent supervision schedule in my school There is a clear and consistent supervision schedule in my school School administrators conduct post-observation meetings to discuss improvements. The school administration organizes workshops or in-service trainings on CBC implementation. The school leadership addresses the challenges I encounter during CBC implementation. I feel motivated to improve my teaching due to administrative supervision efforts. Teachers Competence in CBC, Scale (1¼ Strongly Disagree, 2¼Disagree, 3¼Neutral, 4¼Agree, 5¼ Strongly Agree) 1 2 3 4 5 I understand the key principles of the Competency-Based Curriculum. I develop instructional objectives based on CBC competencies. I integrate generic skills and values in classroom activities. I design appropriate assessment tools for CBC learning outcomes. I use a variety of teaching methods to promote competencies. I engage learners in collaborative and problem-solving tasks. I integrate ICT tools effectively to support CBC delivery I maintain accurate and competency-aligned learner records. I am confident in aligning my lessons with CBC learning domains I regularly reflect on and adjust my teaching strategies. The table above present survey items measuring School Administrative Support Supervision and Teachers’ Competence in Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) implementation, rated on a five-point Likert scale where 1¼ Strongly Disagree and 5¼ Strongly Agree. The first section includes statements on supervision practices such as lesson planning oversight, feedback, instructional improvement, learner-cantered strat- egies, supervision schedules, post-observation meetings, training workshops, administrative support, and teacher motivation. The second sec- tion assesses teachers’ competence in CBC through items on understanding CBC principles, developing competency-based objectives, integrating skills and values, designing assessments, using varied teaching methods, engaging learners, applying ICT, maintaining records, aligning lessons with CBC domains, and reflecting on teaching strategies. Table 2. Demographic characteristics. Variables Options Frequencies % Gender Male 196 63.6 Female 112 36.4 Total 308 100 Age Bracket < 25 49 15.9 25–34 66 21.4 35–44 66 21.4 45–54 93 30.2 >55 34 11.0 Total 308 100 Teaching Experiences < 3 years 33 10.7 3-5 years 104 33.8 6-10 years 103 33.4 >10 years 68 22.1 Total 308 100 Highest Qualification Diploma 152 49.4 Bachelor 134 43.5 Master Degree 20 6.5 PhD 2 0.6 Total 308 100 School Type Public 145 47.1 Private 163 52.9 Total 308 100 Table above show the demographic characteristics of 308 respondents. The sample comprised 63.6% males and 36.4% females. Most participants were aged 45–54 years (30.2%), followed by those aged 25–34 and 35–44 years (each 21.4%). In terms of teaching experience, 33.8% had 3–5 years and 33.4% had 6–10 years of experience. Regarding academic qualifications, 49.4% held Diplomas, 43.5% Bachelor’s degrees, 6.5% Master’s degrees, and 0.6% PhDs. Additionally, 47.1% of respondents were from public schools, while 52.9% were from private schools. COGENT EDUCATION 5 comparison of administrative support supervision and its impact on CBC implementation across different school types. The participants’ distribution based on various demographic variables is described below. The results show that a strong positive relationship exists between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in sec- ondary schools in the Lango sub-region (Table 3). Pearson correlation coefficient (r) ¼ .857. The relation- ship is statistically significant, as the p-value is 0.000, which is less than 0.01. From the scatter plot in figure 1 above, it can be noted that as school administrative support supervi- sion increases, teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum also tends to improve, though not perfectly. The regression equation, y¼ 0.8þ 0.82x, depicts that for every 0.8-point increase in school administrative support supervision, teachers’ competence in CBC implementation increases by 0.82 points on average. The R2 value of 0.734 indicates that about 73.4% of the variability in teachers’ competence in CBC implementation among secondary schools in the Lango subregion can be statistically explained by the extent of school administrative support supervision. To validate the strength of the regression analysis, several diagnostic checks were conducted to con- firm whether the assumptions of regression were satisfied. The results showed that the residuals were approximately normally distributed, as shown in the histogram (Figure 2) and the normal P–P plot (Figure 4) below, in which the points closely aligned with the diagonal line. This confirms that the nor- mality assumption was met. Additionally, the scatterplot (Figure 3) of standardized residuals against pre- dicted values indicated no systematic pattern, suggesting that the relationship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in CBC implementation is linear and that the assumption of homoscedasticity was upheld. These results provide confidence that the statistical findings in the regression analysis were not only significant but also robust. Therefore, the observed strong positive influence of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in CBC implementation can be considered both reliable and valid for drawing conclusions. Discussion The findings of this study reveal a strong positive relationship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum in secondary schools in the Lango sub-region. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r ¼ 0.857) indicates a substantial linear association between the variables, while the level of significance (p¼ 0.000) provides strong evi- dence to reject the null hypothesis of no relationship between the study variables of school administra- tive support supervision and teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum. This suggests with 99% confidence that the observed association is not due to chance. These results affirm earlier studies that emphasized the critical role of instructional leadership and supportive supervi- sion in strengthening teacher capacity and pedagogical effectiveness (Akpalu et al., 2025; Gading, 2024; Naguit, 2024). They also align with the arguments of Gul et al. (2019), who noted that effective school leadership practices, including supervision and mentoring, are essential for fostering teacher profession- alism and curriculum delivery. The regression analysis further underscores this relationship. The equation (y¼ 0.8þ 0.82x) shows that for every 0.8-point increase in school administrative support supervision, teachers’ competence in CBC implementation increases by approximately 0.82 points. The coefficient of determination (R2 ¼ 0.734) suggests that about 73.4% of the variance in teachers’ competence can be explained by administrative support supervision. This highlights the predictive power of effective super- vision in enhancing teachers’ instructional competence and professional growth. The scatter plot also visually confirms this relationship, showing that higher levels of support supervision are associated with improved teacher competence, although the relationship is not perfect, implying that other factors also contribute to teacher effectiveness. This resonates with Kilag and Sasan (2023) view that leadership prac- tices, though highly influential, are second only to classroom instruction in shaping teacher and student outcomes. Importantly, the unexplained variance of 26.6% indicates that while supervision plays a major role, other determinants also shape teachers’ competence. Factors such as teachers’ intrinsic motivation, community involvement, socioeconomic conditions, and national education policies may explain this gap. Exploring these dimensions could provide new insights for policymakers. For instance, the Gross theory of curriculum implementation emphasizes that clarity, capability, resources, and management 6 O. EMMANUEL AND S. CHAKRAWARTY Table 3. Pearson correlation test. Correlations School administrative support supervision Teachers’ competence inn CBC implementation. School Administrative Support Supervision. Pearson Correlation 1 0.862�� Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 N 308 308 Teachers’ Competence in CBC implementation. Pearson Correlation 0.862�� 1 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 N 308 308 ��Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The above table show the Pearson correlation between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in competency- based curriculum (CBC) implementation. The correlation coefficient is r¼ 0.862, with p< 0.01, indicating a strong, positive, and statistically significant relationship between the two variables based on a sample of 308 respondents. Figure 1. Scatter plot showing the relationship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ com- petence in Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) implementation. The scatter plot above illustrates a positive linear rela- tionship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in implementing the CBC. The fitted regression line (y¼ 0.8þ 0.82x) with an R2 value of 0.743 indicates that approximately 74.3% of the variation in teachers’ competence can be explained by differences in the level of administrative support supervision, suggesting that increased administrative support is associated with higher teacher competence in CBC implementation. Figures 2–4. Figure 2: Show an histogram of regression standardized residuals. Figure 3: Show a scatter plot of standar- dized residuals. Figure 4: Show a normal P–P plot of standardized residuals. COGENT EDUCATION 7 support are all critical. Hence, even in contexts where supervision is strong, gaps in resource provision or teacher preparedness may account for this unexplained portion. The study findings also align with the path-goal theory, which posits that effective leadership clarifies goals, provides guidance, and removes barriers to enhance performance. In this study, administrators who actively supervised teachers reduced uncertainties in CBC implementation, consistent with this theoretical lens. Gross’ theory comple- ments this by showing that resource gaps, teacher capacity, and clarity of curriculum reforms interact with supervision to determine outcomes. This integration of the two theories helps to explain not only the observed relationship but also the variance unexplained by supervision alone. Comparatively, similar curriculum reforms in Kenya and Rwanda have highlighted the same dynamics. In Kenya, despite strong supervisory structures, teachers faced challenges of inadequate training and learning resources, which hindered full CBC implementation (Waruingi et al., 2022). Rwanda also experienced difficulties where supervision alone could not compensate for resource constraints and teacher readiness (Nsengimana et al., 2024). Conversely, Finland’s curriculum reforms have shown that when supervision is combined with robust teacher professional development and trust-based accountability, teachers are more compe- tent and innovative in curriculum delivery (Ince, 2024). These comparisons underscore that supervision is necessary but not sufficient; systemic support and contextual enablers remain crucial. Despite these insights, the study has limitations. The reliance on cross-sectional survey data restricts causal inferences, and the use of self-reported measures may cause bias (Savitz & Wellenius, 2023). Future research should go beyond measuring the statistical relationship and examine the qualitative dimensions of supervision, including how teachers perceive feedback, motivation, and leadership practices. Moreover, exploring the 26.6% unexplained variance by investigating other contextual and systemic factors would enrich under- standing and contribute to more holistic CBC implementation strategies. Conclusion and implication This study provides strong empirical evidence of a statistically significant relationship between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum (CBC) in secondary schools of the Lango sub-region. The high correlation coefficient (r¼ 0.857) and explanatory power of the regression model (R2 ¼ 0.734) highlight that effective supervi- sion is not just an administrative function but a key driver of teacher competence and curriculum imple- mentation success. Theoretically, the findings extend both the path-goal theory and Gross’ theory of curriculum implementation. The results affirm the path-goal perspective that when leaders provide direc- tion, feedback, and motivation, teachers’ instructional competence is enhanced. At the same time, the findings reinforce Gross’ theory by showing that supervision strengthens clarity of curriculum goals, builds teachers’ capacity, and ensures resource and management support. By integrating these frame- works, this study contributes a more holistic model in which leadership behaviors and systemic condi- tions jointly predict successful CBC implementation. From a practice and policy perspective, the study calls for ministries of education and school leaders to go beyond compliance-driven monitoring. Supervision should adopt a developmental approach, incorporating mentoring, coaching, and peer-learning opportunities. Ministries could develop standar- dized supervision frameworks with clear indicators, provide training programs to equip administrators with modern supervisory skills, and allocate targeted funding for continuous professional development. At the school level, leaders can institutionalize structured classroom observations, regular feedback ses- sions, and collaborative professional learning communities. These strategies would not only strengthen teacher competence but also create sustainable systems of accountability and support for curriculum reforms. There is a need for future research to unpack the dynamics of supervision and teacher compe- tence using complementary methodologies. Mixed-methods approaches would integrate both depth and breadth, providing a more comprehensive understanding of how administrative support interacts with contextual factors such as resources, teacher motivation, and community engagement. 8 O. EMMANUEL AND S. CHAKRAWARTY Limitations and ethical considerations This study, like many empirical inquiries, was subject to certain limitations. Firstly, the use of a cross- sectional correlational design in this study restricts the ability to make causal inferences between school administrative support supervision and teachers’ competence in implementing the competency-based curriculum. The findings should therefore be interpreted as associations rather than definitive cause- effect relationships. Secondly, reliance on self-reported questionnaires as a sole data collection tool may have introduced potential response biases, which could have influenced the accuracy of the data pro- vided by respondents. Thirdly, the study was confined to secondary schools in the Lango sub-region, which may limit the ability to generalize the findings to other regions in Uganda or beyond. In addition, although the sample size was adequate, non-sampling errors such as misinterpretation of questionnaire items by the respondents could not be entirely ruled out. Ethical considerations were duly observed throughout the research process. Prior to data collection, the research proposal was presented to Tezpur University Ethics Committee (TUEC) to seek their permis- sion and ethical approval. The proposal was approved and Certificate No.: TU/EC/2025/042 issued to the researchers. Written consent was obtained from all participants. The researchers formulated a statement, explaining the purpose of the study and the data that would be collected, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any stage without penalty, assurance of safety during data collection and confidentiality of the participants. The had a provision for the respondent to append their signature as a consent for their participation in the study after reading and understanding. This state- ment was part of the data collection tool. These measures ensured that the study adhered to estab- lished ethical standards in educational research. Acknowledgment Sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Sashapra Chakrawarty, for her valuable guidance, constructive feedback, and continuous support throughout this study. I am also thankful to the Department of Education at Tezpur University for providing the necessary resources and facilities. My appreciation extends to my family, most especially my dear wife, Ms. Harriet Oroma, and our lovely son, Obote Jesse Odit, for their encouragement and support during this study. Author contributions The authors hereby declare that the study, entitled “Roles of School Administrative Support Supervision on Teachers’ Competence in the Implementation of Competency-Based Curriculum in Lango Secondary Schools, Uganda,” was jointly worked on by Odit Emmanuel and Sashapra Chakrawarty. Odit Emmanuel played critical roles in conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, writing the original draft, visualization, project administra- tion, and funding. He led the overall design, data collection, analysis, and manuscript preparation. Sashapra Chakrawarty played a role in supervision of the study, validation, and writing, reviewing & editing. She provided aca- demic guidance, critical feedback, and editorial refinement of the manuscript. Both authors reviewed and approved the final version of the paper and take full responsibility for its content. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Funding The authors, Odit Emmanuel and Sashapra Chakrawarty, hereby declare that no financial support or funding was received from any individual, institution, or organization for the conduct of this study titled “Roles of School Administrative Support Supervision on Teachers’ Competence in the Implementation of Competency-Based Curriculum in Lango Secondary Schools, Uganda.” All expenses related to the design, data collection, analysis, and preparation of this manuscript were personally covered by the authors. COGENT EDUCATION 9 About the authors Mr. Odit Emmanuel is a research scholar pursuing PhD in Education at Tezpur University, he holds a master of Education degree in Curriculum Studies and Foundation of Education from Gulu University, he also holds a bachelor in science Education Degree from Busitema University. His areas of interests are in Curriculum Studies and teacher Education. Dr. Sashapra Chakrawarty holds a PhD in Education from Banaras Hindu University, her areas of interest is in Educational Psychology, Special Education, and Curriculum studies. ORCID Odit Emmanuel http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2593-6927 Sashapra Chakrawarty http://orcid.org/0009-0008-2147-5642 Data availability statement The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study, Roles of School Administrative Support Supervision on Teachers’ Competence in the Implementation of Competency-Based Curriculum in Lango Secondary Schools, Uganda, are openly available in the Mendeley data repository https://data.mendeley.com/preview/ 9fdnhtpdxf?a=be6dc60c-9a5b-4133-95db-4555e647a3f2. Additional information or materials related to the study may be obtained from the corresponding author, Odit Emmanuel, upon reasonable request. References Adipala, E., & Ekimwere, Z. (2023). Education access trends in Uganda. RUFORUM Working Document Series, 22, 462–471. Akpalu, R., Owusu, J., Asare, E. 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COGENT EDUCATION 11 https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2018.1558655 https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2018.1558655 https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2025.2470816 https://doi.org/10.31098/aqr.v1i1.1380 https://doi.org/10.14738/abr.811.9042 https://doi.org/10.37284/eajes.7.3.2013 https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.3.54 https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.2.37 https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwac037 https://doi.org/10.59652/jetm.v2i1.173 https://doi.org/10.59652/jetm.v2i1.173 https://doi.org/10.70619/vol2iss2pp26-39 Roles of school administrative support supervision on teachers’ competence in the implementation of competency-based curriculum in Lango secondary schools, Uganda Abstract Introduction Research objective Hypothesis Theoretical framework Path-Goal theory Gross theory of curriculum implementation Literature review Research methods and materials Results Demographic characteristics Discussion Conclusion and implication Limitations and ethical considerations Acknowledgment Author contributions Disclosure statement Funding Orcid References